<h1 class="page-title" style="text-align: center;">TESOL- Four Language Skills- Listening &amp; Speaking</h1>
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<h3><strong>FOUR LANGUAGE SKILLS</strong></h3>
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<h4>For almost six decades now research and practice in English language teachings have identified the "four skills"-listening, speaking, reading, and writing as of paramount importance. In textbooks and curricula, ESL classes around the world tend to focus on one or two of the four skills, sometimes to the exclusion of the others. For learners of a second language, some attention to the four different skills pays off as students discover the differences between these four primary modes of performance along with their interrelationships.</h4>
<h4>With all our trend of treating the four skills in separate segments of a curriculum, there is nevertheless a more recent trend toward skill integration. That is, rather than designing a curriculum to teach the many aspects of one skill, say, reading, curriculum designers are taking more of whole language approach whereby reading is treated as one of two or more interrelated skills. A lesson in a so-called reading class, under this new paradigm, might, for example, include:</h4>
<ul>
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<h4>A pre-reading discussion of the topic.</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Listening to a lecture or a series of informative statements about the topic of the passage.</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Focus on an individual reading strategy, say, scanning.</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Writing a paraphrase of a section in a passage.</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4>This class, then, models for the students the real-life integration of language skills, gets them to perceive the relationship between several skills and provides the teacher with a great deal of flexibility in creating compelling, motivating lessons.</h4>
<h4>It seems as though the integration of the four skills is the only plausible approach to take within a communicative, interactive framework. Most of the interactive techniques involve the integration of skills. The following observations support such techniques:</h4>
<ul>
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<h4>Production and reception are quite simply two sides of the same coin; one cannot split the coin in two.</h4>
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<h4>Interaction means sending and receiving messages.</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Written and spoken the language often bear a relationship to each other; to ignore that relationship is to ignore the richness of language.</h4>
</li>
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<h4>For literate learners, the interrelationship of written and spoken language is an intrinsically motivating reflection of language and culture and society.</h4>
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<h4>By attending primarily to what learners can DO with language, and only secondarily to the forms of language, we invite any or all of the four skills that are relevant to the classroom arena.</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Often one skill will reinforce another; we learn to speak, for example, in part by modelling what we hear and learn to write by examining what we can read</h4>
</li>
</ul>
https://youtu.be/IUuMf4EumsQ

<em><strong>Listening</strong></em>
<h4>Listening is not a one-way street. It is not merely the process of unidirectional receiving of audible symbols. The following eight processes (adapted from Clark &amp; Clark, 1977, and Richards, 1983) are all involved incomprehension. Except for the initial and the final processes below, no sequence is implied here. They all occur, if not simultaneously, then in extremely rapid succession. Neurological time must be viewed in microseconds.</h4>
<ol>
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<h4>The hearer processes what we'll call "raw speech" and holds an "image" of it in" short-term memory. This image consists of the constituents of a stream of speech.</h4>
</li>
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<h4>The hearer determines the type of expression event that is being processed. Is this a conversation, speech, a radio broadcast, etc.? and then appropriately "colours" the interpretation of the perceived message.</h4>
</li>
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<h4>The hearer infers the objectives of the speaker through consideration of the type of speech event, the context and the content (do the speaker persuade, request, affirm, deny, inform, etc.?). Thus, the function of the message is inferred.</h4>
</li>
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<h4>The hearer recalls background information relevant to this particular context and subject matter. Experiences and knowledge are used to perform cognitive associations to bring a plausible interpretation to the message.</h4>
</li>
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<h4>The hearer assigns a literal meaning to the utterance. In many instances, literal and intended meaning matches.</h4>
</li>
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<h4>The listener assigns an intended meaning to the statement. How often do misunderstandings stem from false assumptions that are made on the hearer's part about the intended meaning of the speaker?</h4>
</li>
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<h4>The listener determines whether information should be retained in short-term or long-term memory.</h4>
</li>
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<h4>The hearer deletes the form in which the message was originally received. The words and phrases are quickly forgotten, but the relevant information is retained conceptually.</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4>It should be clear from the ongoing that listening comprehension is an interactive process. After the initial reception of sound, we human beings perform at least seven other major operations. In conversational settings, of course, immediately after the listening stage, further interaction takes place, as the hearer then becomes the speaker in a response of some kind. All of these processes are important to keep in mind as you teach. They are all relevant to a learner's purpose for listening, to performance factors that may cause difficulty in processing speech, to overall principles of effective listening techniques.</h4>
<h4>Much of your language teaching energy' is devoted to instruction in mastering English conversation. However, numerous other forms of spoken language are also important to incorporate into a language course, especially in teaching comprehension. Here is a classification of the types of oral languages, which should be able to help you see the big picture of what teaching aural comprehension entails.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" width="148">
<h4>Monologue</h4>
</td>
<td colspan="4" width="295">
<h4>Dialogue</h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="74"></td>
<td width="74"></td>
<td colspan="2" width="148"></td>
<td colspan="2" width="148"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="74"></td>
<td width="74"></td>
<td colspan="2" width="148">
<h4>Interpersonal</h4>
</td>
<td colspan="2" width="148">
<h4>Transactional</h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="74"></td>
<td width="74"></td>
<td colspan="2" width="148"></td>
<td colspan="2" width="148"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="74">
<h4>Planned</h4>
</td>
<td width="74">
<h4>Unplanned</h4>
</td>
<td width="74">
<h4>Unfamiliar</h4>
</td>
<td width="74">
<h4>Familiar</h4>
</td>
<td width="74">
<h4>Unfamiliar</h4>
</td>
<td width="74">
<h4>Familiar</h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="74"></td>
<td width="74"></td>
<td width="74"></td>
<td width="74"></td>
<td width="74"></td>
<td width="74"></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h4></h4>
<h4>In monologues, when one speaker uses spoken language, the hearer must process long stretches 'of speech without interruption the stream of speech will go on whether or not the hearer comprehends. Planned monologues usually manifest little redundancy and are therefore relatively difficult to grasp. Unplanned monologues exhibit more redundancy, which makes for easy comprehension, but the presence of more performance variables and other hesitations can either help or hinder comprehension.</h4>
<h4>Dialogues involve two or more speakers and can be subdivided into those exchanges that promote social relationships (interpersonal) and those for which the purpose is to convey factual information (transactional). In each case, participants may have a good deal of shared knowledge; therefore, the familiarity of the interlocutors will produce conversations with more assumptions and implications. In conversation with participants who are unfamiliar with each other, references and meanings have to be made more explicit for effective comprehension to take place.</h4>
<h4>Second language learners need to pay particular attention to factors that many make listening more difficult. Those factors profoundly influence the processing of speech and can often block comprehension if they are not attended to. The following eight characteristics of spoken language are adapted from several sources (Dunkel, 1991, Richards, 1983, Ur, 1984):</h4>
<ul>
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<h4>Clustering</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Redundancy</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Reduced forms</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Performance variables</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Colloquial language</h4>
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<h4>Rate of delivery</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Stress, Rhythm, and intonation</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Interaction</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4>With literally hundreds of possible techniques available for teaching listening skills, it will be helpful for you to think in terms of several kinds of listening performances, that is, what your students do in a listening technique.</h4>
<ul>
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<h4>Reactive: listening to the surface structure of an utterance</h4>
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<h4>Intensive: focusing on certain components of the discourse</h4>
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<h4>Responsive: eliciting an immediate response from the learners</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Selective: scanning the material for specific information</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Extensive: developing a top-down, global understanding of the utterance</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Interactive: Including all of the above as students actively participate in discussions, debates, conversations, role-play, etc.</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4>Several decades of research and practice in teaching listening comprehension have yielded some practical principles for designing techniques that include aural comprehension. These principles are summarized below.</h4>
<ul>
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<h4>In an interactive, four skill curriculum, make sure that you don't overlook the importance of techniques that specifically develop listening comprehension competence</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Techniques should be intrinsically motivating. Appeal to listeners' personal interests and goals. Since background information is an important factor in listening, take into full account the experiences and abilities of your students as you design lessons.</h4>
</li>
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<h4>The technique should utilize authentic language and contexts. Real-world tasks enable the students to see the relevance of classroom activity to their long-term communicative goal.</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Carefully consider the form of the listeners' responses. Since comprehension itself is not externally observable, we can only infer that certain things have been understood, and we can find out through students’ overt responses to speech (verbal and nonverbal).</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4></h4>
<ul>
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<h4>Encourage the development of listening strategies. Some foreign students are simply not aware of how to listen. Draw their attention to the value of such strategies as:</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Looking for keywords</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Looking for non-verbal cues to meaning</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Predicting a speaker's purpose by the context of the spoken discourse</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Guessing at meanings</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Seeking clarification</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Listening for the general gist</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4></h4>
<ul>
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<h4>Include both bottoms-up and top-down listening techniques. Bottom-up processing proceeds from sounds to words to grammatical relationships to lexical meanings, etc. to a final "message." And Top-down processing is evoked from a bank of prior knowledge and global expectations.</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4></h4>
<h4><strong><em>Exercises and Activities for Listening Comprehension</em></strong></h4>
<h4>Techniques for teaching listening skills will vary considerably across the proficiency continuum. What follows are three lists of techniques adapted from Peterson's "A synthesis for interactive listening" in Celce-Murcia' Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language, for each of three proficiency levels.</h4>
<h4><em><strong>The following video is a recorded Webinar on Four Language Skills (Listening Section.) Please start at Minute 8 (Skip the first 8 minutes.) </strong></em></h4>
https://youtu.be/X1xc7ucH6P4
<h4><strong><em>Exercise Types for Beginning-Level Listeners</em></strong></h4>
<h4><strong><em> </em></strong></h4>
<strong>Bottom-up Exercises</strong>
<ol>
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<h4>Goal: Discriminating between Intonation Contours in Sentences</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Goal: Discriminating between phonemes</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Goal: Selective Listening for Morphological Endings</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Goal: Selecting details from the Text (word recognition)</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Goal: Listening for Normal Sentence Word order</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4></h4>
<strong>Top-Down exercises</strong>
<ol>
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<h4>Goal: Discriminating between Emotional reactions</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Goal: Setting the Gist of a Sequence</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Goal: Recognize the Topic</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4></h4>
<strong>Interactive Exercises</strong>
<ol>
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<h4>Goal: Build a Semantic Network of Word Associations</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Goal: Recognize a Familiar Word and Relate it to a Category</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Goal: Following Directions</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4></h4>
<strong><em>Exercise Types for Intermediate-Level Listeners</em></strong>

<strong>Bottom-Up Exercises</strong>
<ol>
 	<li>Goal: Recognize Fast Speech Forms</li>
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<h4>Goal: Finding the stressed syllable</h4>
</li>
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<h4>" Goal: Recognize words with reduced syllables</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Goal: Recognize words as they are linked in the Speech Stream.</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Goal: Recognize Pertinent Details in Speech Stream</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4></h4>
<strong>Top-Down Exercises</strong>
<ol>
 	<li>Goal: Analyze Discourse structure to Suggest Effective Listening 'Strategies</li>
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<h4>Goal: Listen to Identify, the Speakers of the Topic</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Goal: Listen to Evaluate Themes and Motives</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Goal: Finding Main Ideas and Supporting Details</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Goal: Making Interferences</h4>
</li>
</ol>
&nbsp;

<strong>Interactive Exercises</strong>
<ol>
 	<li>Goal: Discriminating between Registers of Speech and Tones of Voices</li>
 	<li>Goal: Recognize Missing Grammar Markers in Colloquial Speech</li>
 	<li>Goal: Use Knowledge of Reduced Forms to Clarify the Meaning of an Utterance</li>
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<h4>Goal: Use context to build Listening Expectations</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Goal: Listen to Confirm your Expectations</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Goal: Use Context to Build your Expectations. Compare your predictions to what you heard.</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Goal: Use Incomplete Sensory Data and Cultural Background Information to Construct a Complete Understanding of the Text</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4>Exercise Types for Advanced-Level Learners</h4>
<h4>Bottom-up Exercises</h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>Goal: Use the feature of Sentence Stress and Volume to Identify Important Information for Note Taking</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Goal: Become Aware of Sentence Level Features in Lecture Texts</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Goal: Become Aware of Organizational Cues in Lecture Texts</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Goal: Become Aware of Lexical and Supra-segmental Marker for Definitions</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Goal: Identify Specific Points of Information</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4></h4>
<strong>Top-down Exercises</strong>
<ol>
 	<li>Goal: Use the Introduction to the Lecture to predict its Focus and Direction</li>
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<h4>Goal: Use the Lecture transcript to predict the Content of the Next Section</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Goal: Find the Main Idea of a Lecture Segment</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4>Interactive Exercises</h4>
<ol>
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<h4>Goal: Use Incoming Details to Determine the Accuracy of Predictions about Content</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Goal: Determine the Main Ideas of a Section of a Lecture by Analysis of the Details in that Section</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Goal: Make Inferences by Identifying Ideas on the Sentence Level that Lead to Evaluative Statements</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<strong> </strong>

<strong> </strong>

<strong>Speaking</strong>

<strong> </strong>
<h4>From a communicative, pragmatic view of the language classroom, listening and speaking skills are closely intertwined. In the previous chapter, several categories were defined for understanding types of spoken language. At the beginning, through intermediate levels of proficiency, most of the students' efforts in oral production come in the form of dialogue.</h4>
<h4>The previous section in this manual outlines some idiosyncrasies of spoken language that make listening skills somewhat difficult to acquire: clustering, redundancy, reduced forms; performance variables, colloquial language, the rate of delivery, stress, rhythm, and intonation, and interaction. These same characteristics must be taken into account in the dynamic generation of speech, but with a slight twist in that, the learner is now the producer. Bear in mind that characteristics of spoken language can make vocal performance natural as well as, in some cases, difficult.</h4>
<h4>Many learners of foreign ·languages feel that their ultimate goal in pronunciation should be "accent-free" speech that is indistinguishable from that of native speakers. Such a goal is most often unattainable adult learners, and in a multilingual and multicultural world, "accents" are quite acceptable. Our goal as teachers of English pronunciation should, therefore, be more realistically focused on clear, comprehensible pronunciation. At the beginning levels, we want learners to surpass that threshold beneath which pronunciation detracts them from communicating. At the advanced level, pronunciation goals can focus on elements that enhance communication: intonation, voice quality, phonetic, etc.</h4>
&nbsp;

<strong><em>What factors will affect oral communication learning skills?</em></strong>
<ul>
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<h4>Native language: sound system in the mother tongue will affect the sounds they produce when speaking English</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Age: children under the age of puberty stand a chance of "sounding like a native."</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Exposure: the quality and intensity of exposure are greater than the entire length of time</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Innate vocal ability: some people manifest a phonetic coding ability, they are more attuned to phonetic discriminations</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Identity and language ego: one's attitude towards speakers of the target language</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Motivation and concern for proper pronunciation: the extent to which their intrinsic motivation propels the learners towards improvement will strongly influence their results.</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4>Again in the previous section of this manual, six types of listening performances were listed: reactive, intensive, responsive, selective, extensive, and interactive. With the apparent connection between listening and speaking, six similar categories apply to the kinds of vocal production that students are expected to carry out in the classroom:</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>Imitative: Imitation is performed not for the purpose of meaningful interaction, but for focusing on some particular element of language form. Is drilling a legitimate part of the communicative language classroom? Drills offer students an opportunity to listen and to orally repeat individual strings of language that may pose some linguistic difficulty. Guidelines for successful exercises:</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Keep them short</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Keep them simple</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Make sure students know why they are doing the drill</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Limit them to phonology or grammar points</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Make sure they ultimately lead to communicative goals</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Don't overuse them</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4></h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>Intensive: This goes one step beyond the "imitative" to include any speaking performance designed to practice some phonological or grammatical</h4>
aspect
<h4>of the language.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Responsive: short replies to the teacher or student-initiated questions or comments that do not extend into dialogues</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Transactional (dialogue): It is carried out for the purpose of conveying or exchanging specific information and is an extended form of "responsive"</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Interpersonal (dialogue): It is carried out for the purpose of maintaining social relationships and these conversations can involve some of the following factors:</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4></h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>a casual register</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>colloquial language</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>emotionally charged language</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>slang</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>ellipsis</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>sarcasm</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Extensive (monologue): students at intermediate and advanced levels are called on to give extended monologues in the form of oral reports, summaries, short speeches, etc.</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4>Here are some practical principles that may help you in designing speaking techniques:</h4>
<ul>
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<h4>Techniques should cover the spectrum of learner needs, from language-based focus on accuracy to message-based focus on interaction, meaning, and fluency.</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Techniques should be intrinsically motivating</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Techniques should encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful contexts.</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Provide appropriate feedback and correction</h4>
</li>
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<h4>Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Give students opportunities to initiate oral communication</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4></h4>
<h4>Encourage the development of speaking strategies such as:</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>Asking for clarification</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Asking someone to repeat something</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Using fillers to gain time to process</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Getting someone' s attention</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Using paraphrases for structures one can't produce</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Using formulaic expressions</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Using mime and nonverbal expressions to convey meaning</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4></h4>
<h4><em><strong>Interactive techniques such as:</strong></em></h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>Interviews</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Guessing games</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Ranking exercises</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Discussions</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Role-play</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Individual practice: Oral dialogue journals (using tape recorders)</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4></h4>
<h4><em><strong>Exercises and Activities for Oral Communication</strong></em></h4>
<h4>What follows here is a set of brief descriptions of just a few samples of the hundreds of different techniques you could use to teach various speaking skills. The first three have been adapted from Wong's Teaching Pronunciation: Focus on English Rhythm, Intonation, and the last four have been adapted from Nolasco and Arthur's Conversation.</h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4><strong><em>Pronunciation: Rhythm and Thought groups</em></strong></h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4>The following sentences, all on the topic of contemporary superstitions and popular beliefs, illustrate the use of pauses to separate prepositional phrases and clauses. These sentences can be used with advanced-level students; for students of intermediate proficiency, more appropriate sentences should be selected. Have students listen as you read the sentences that follow and pause only at the points marked by a slash. Then have them practice in pairs with the listener monitoring for pauses only at the places marked.</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>In Illinois, driving around the house in low gear/ is said to cure a family member's illness.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>In North Carolina, if the first bird seen on New Year's morning is flying high, / there will be good health during the year.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>If you break a mirror, then you will have seven years of bad luck, /unless you throw the broken pieces in a moving, stream.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>If you spill salt, then you will have bad luck, unless you throw some over your left shoulder.</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4>Ask the students to discuss, in small groups, superstitions from their countries and then report on their findings to the large group, monitoring themselves for placing pauses between phrases and clauses.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="113">
<h4>He: Ready?</h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="113">
<h4>She: No</h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="113">
<h4>He: Why?</h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="113">
<h4>She: Problems.</h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="113">
<h4>He: Problems?</h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="113">
<h4>She: Yes.</h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="113">
<h4>He: What?</h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="113">
<h4>She: Babysitter</h4>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<ol start="2">
 	<li>
<h4><strong><em>Pronunciation: Intonation</em></strong></h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4><strong><em> </em></strong></h4>
<h4>2.1.    Listening for Pitch changes Exercise No 1</h4>
<h4>Record the following conversation and play it for the students. Establish the participants, the setting, and the event by asking the students to guess who and what they are.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4><strong>Conversation A</strong></h4>
<h4>The typical scenario that students come up with is as follows: A husband and wife are preparing to go out to a party or dinner, but the babysitter has just called to say she could not make it.</h4>
<h4>After the students have figured out what is going on, you can then play the conversation again. This time put transcribe the conversation on the board and ask the students to try to determine for each utterance whether the speaker's voice ends with a rising or falling pitch. Students will be confused at first, especially with falling intonations on monosyllabic words; some students will identify these as rising. Draw arrows next to each utterance and play the conversation once more.</h4>
<h4>Ask the students to explain what each utterance means, then point out <em>that </em>a change in pitch can indicate a change in meaning. <em>Ready? With </em>a rising pitch means are <em>you ready? </em>But <em>ready </em>with a falling pitch means, <em>I am ready. Why? With </em>a falling pitch means,, <em>I want a specific answer to my question, </em>while <em>why? With </em>a rising pitch might mean <em>I want a specific answer to my question, but I don't want to sound to insistent.</em></h4>
<ol start="2">
 	<li>
<h4><strong><em>b. Listening for Pitch Changes Exercise No 2</em></strong></h4>
</li>
</ol>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="104">
<h4>Ready</h4>
</td>
<td width="104">
<h4>No</h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="104">
<h4>Problems</h4>
</td>
<td width="104">
<h4>Yes</h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="104">
<h4>Babysitter</h4>
</td>
<td width="104">
<h4>No</h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="104">
<h4>Ready</h4>
</td>
<td width="104">
<h4>Yes</h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="104">
<h4>Problems</h4>
</td>
<td width="104">
<h4>What</h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="104">
<h4>Yes</h4>
</td>
<td width="104">
<h4>Why</h4>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h4>List the following words on the board. Make your own list and mark the words for either a rise or fall in pitch. Read them one at a time as marked and ask the students to point up if they hear an increase in pitch, down if they listen to a fall in pitch. Confirm or inform their responses by marking the words on the board with an arrow pointing up or down.</h4>
<h4>Have the students pronounce each word with you, checking for the appropriate rise or fall in pitch.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<strong><em>3.b. Rising and falling Pitch Exercise No. 1</em></strong>

<em> </em>
<h4>Divide students into pairs to practice the first conversation. Additional practice dialogues are provided here. Make up more for your particular students. Follow the procedure described in the first conversation, making sure the students know or have some idea of who is speaking, what the circumstances are, and what roles the speakers have about one another.</h4>
<table width="500">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="167">
<h4><em>Conversation B</em></h4>
</td>
<td width="153">
<h4><em>Conversation C</em></h4>
</td>
<td width="180">
<h4><em>Conversation D</em></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="167">
<h4>A: Single?</h4>
<h4>B: Double.</h4>
<h4>A: Double?</h4>
<h4>B: Yes.</h4>
<h4>A: Cone?</h4>
<h4>B: Cup.</h4>
</td>
<td width="153">
<h4>A: Good?</h4>
<h4>B: delicious.</h4>
<h4>A: More?</h4>
<h4>B: Please.</h4>
</td>
<td width="180">
<h4>A: Locked?</h4>
<h4>B: Locked.</h4>
<h4>A: Key?</h4>
<h4>B: Key?</h4>
<h4>A: Key.</h4>
<h4>B: Oh-oh.</h4>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h4></h4>
<ol start="3">
 	<li>
<h4><strong><em>b. Rising and falling Pitch Exercise No 2</em></strong></h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4>Pair up students and give each pair an index card with the following instructions: "This conversation is out of order. Rearrange the sentences in the correct order on a separate piece of paper and mark the pitch as rising or falling.“</h4>
<h4>Here are some samples of scrambled conversations. You can make up more of your own. Try unscrambling them yourself; some of them are not as easy as they appear.</h4>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="148">
<h4><em>Conversation # 1</em></h4>
</td>
<td width="148">
<h4><em>Conversation # 2</em></h4>
</td>
<td width="210">
<h4><em>Conversation # 3</em></h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="148">
<h4>Sure</h4>
<h4>Cup of Coffee?</h4>
<h4>Milk?</h4>
<h4>Pardon?</h4>
<h4>Black, Please.</h4>
<h4>Coffee?</h4>
<h4>No.</h4>
</td>
<td width="148">
<h4>Apple?</h4>
<h4>Starved.</h4>
<h4>Thanks.</h4>
<h4>Hungry?</h4>
<h4>Sure?</h4>
<h4>Take-it</h4>
</td>
<td width="210">
<h4>Five.</h4>
<h4>Please.</h4>
<h4>Non-smoking?</h4>
<h4>Reservations?</h4>
<h4>This way.</h4>
<h4>How Many?</h4>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h4>Once the students have unscrambled the phrases and marked the pitch patterns, give them time to practice. Then ask each pair to put their conversation on the board, explain the situation, and perform it for the class. Other students can comment on their arrangement and propose other possibilities. The whole class can practice the final versions of each conversation.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<ol start="4">
 	<li>
<h4><strong><em>Pronunciation: Stress</em></strong></h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4>Level: Elementary to intermediate     (Time: 10-15 minutes)</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>Aim: To give students stress practice in the context of a drill.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>Preparation: Prepare twenty-seven little cards with a picture on each to cover all the possible permutations of the following colours, fabrics, and items of clothing (Notice that this activity could be used with other objects and adjectives). The items can be increased and/or varied if required:</h4>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="148">
<h4>Red</h4>
<h4>Blue</h4>
<h4>Black</h4>
</td>
<td width="148">
<h4>woollen</h4>
<h4>cotton</h4>
<h4>nylon</h4>
</td>
<td width="148">
<h4>dress</h4>
<h4>shirt</h4>
<h4>sweater</h4>
<h4></h4>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h4><strong> </strong></h4>
<h4><strong>Procedure:</strong></h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>Set up a shop situation. Show the students the cards to indicate what they can buy, and write a substitution table on the board like this;</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="148">
<h4>I'd like a</h4>
</td>
<td width="148">
<h4>Red woollen dress,</h4>
<h4>Blue cotton sweater,</h4>
<h4>Black nylon shirt,</h4>
<h4></h4>
</td>
<td width="148">
<h4>Please</h4>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<ol start="2">
 	<li>
<h4>Take the role of the shop assistant, and ask the students to take turns to ask for something at the shop. Whenever a student asks for something, you should hand over a picture making an error in either the colour, the fabric or the item of clothing. The student then has to correct the error using appropriate stress and intonation. The dialogue should go like this:</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4>Student: I'd like a red cotton dress, please.</h4>
<h4>Teacher: here you are.</h4>
<h4>Student: No. I asked for a RED cotton dress, not a BLUE one.</h4>
<h4>When they have got the hang of the exercise, divide the cards out among pairs of students so that they can practice 011 their own.</h4>
<h4><strong> </strong></h4>
<h4><strong><em>5. Pronunciation: Meaningful minimal pairs</em></strong></h4>
<h4>Traditional minimal-pair drills, used for decades in language teaching, go something like this:
T: Okay, class, on the board,
picture # 1 is a "pen", and picture #2 is a "pin." Listen to Pen (point to #1).
Pin (points to #2) (several repetitions). Now, I'm going to say either #1 or #2.
You tell me which. Ready?</h4>
<h4>T: PIN</h4>
<h4>Ss: #2</h4>
<h4>T: Good. Ready, PIN</h4>
<h4>Ss: #2</h4>
<h4>T: Okay, PEN</h4>
<h4>Ss: #1</h4>
<h4>Communicative language teaching principles stimulate us to be a little more meaningful. In the following examples, you can see that a little contextualization goes a long way:</h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>T: This pen leaks.</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4>S: Then don't write with it.</h4>
<h4>T: This pan leaks.</h4>
<h4>S: Then don't cook with it.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<ol start="2">
 	<li>
<h4>T: The sun is hot on my head!</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4>S: Then get a cap</h4>
<h4>T: Oh, No! I missed the bus!</h4>
<h4>S: Then get a cab.</h4>
<h4>These are good examples of drilling techniques that have been modified to bring context, interest, and a bit of authenticity to what otherwise be a very mechanical task.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<ol start="6">
 	<li>
<h4><strong><em>Grammar</em></strong></h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4>Level: Intermediate and above   (Time: 15-20 min.)</h4>
<h4>Aim: to give students practice in a hypothetical <em>world.</em></h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4><strong>Procedure:</strong></h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>Put the following list on the board:</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>a) Your school</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>b) Your job or occupation</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>c) Your friends</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>d) Your habits, e.g. smoking, exercise, eating, etc.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>e) Your hobbies, e.g. playing the piano, stamp collecting, etc.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>f) Your skills, e.g. languages, carpentry, etc.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Ask the students to write a personal entry for each heading. They should then decide which of these they would or would not change if they were to live their lives again.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Once they have done this, encourage them to share their thoughts in small groups of three or four.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Ask the students to take it in turns to tell others in the group what they would change if they had their life again. The others can ask questions or comment.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Wind up the activity by seeing if there are any areas most of the class would want to change.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4><strong><em>Discourse</em></strong></h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4>Level: Elementary and above  (Time: 10-15 min.) Aim: To help students recognize gambits.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>Preparation: Find a short cassette or video recording of two or three people chatting naturally.  Identify examples of short responses being used and put them in random order on a task sheet or blackboard. You can add distracters if you wish. The task sheet might look like this:</h4>
<h4></h4>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" width="443">
<h4>Read the following list of expressions. Listen to the tape. Tick any of the expressions you hear. You may hear some expression more than once:</h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="221">
<h4>Is that right?</h4>
<h4>Really?</h4>
<h4>How interesting!</h4>
<h4>Err...hum</h4>
<h4>Fine.</h4>
<h4>I see</h4>
</td>
<td width="221">
<h4>That's great!</h4>
<h4>Oh, dear.</h4>
<h4>What a shame!</h4>
<h4>Oh, no!</h4>
<h4>You're joking!</h4>
<h4></h4>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h4></h4>
<h4><strong>Procedure:</strong></h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>Give a task sheet to each student and ask him or her to tick off the examples they hear on the tape.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>When they have done this, choose two or three examples to focus on and see if the students can recall the utterances that precede or follow them on the tape.</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<ol start="8">
 	<li>
<h4><strong><em>Strategy consciousness rising</em></strong></h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4>Level: intermediate or above  (Time: 30-25 min.)</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>Aim: For students to consider ways in which they can learn English outside the classroom</h4>
<h4>Preparation: Make photocopies of the task sheet over the page for your class.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4><strong>Procedure:</strong></h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>Arouse student interest in the planning task</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Set up the initial pair work and give the students five to ten minutes to discuss, add or modify the list of suggestions.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>When the initial discussion is over you should facilitate the setting of groups. Allow the groups to a maximum of twenty minutes to complete the planning task.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Chair the report back session in which each group presents its suggestions.</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4>Task sheet:</h4>
<h4>Here is a list of techniques which people use to help them learn English outside the classroom:</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>Memorizing a list of words</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Reading a grammar book</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Doing grammar exercises</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Reading a book or magazine in English</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Re-copying things from their class notebook</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Correcting mistakes made in written work</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Preparing the next unit of the</h4>
coursebook
<h4>"</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4>Work with a partner and add any others of your own. Tell each other which one in the list you find helpful if any, and then tell the class about the ones you have added.</h4>
<h4>Arrange yourselves in groups and take a time period from this list:</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>30 min. a day for six days a week</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>one hour a day for five days a week</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>two hours a day for four days a week</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4>In your group, plan a program to show how you could make use of the time to do extra work on your English. Use the ideas from the earlier list, as well as any others you can think. Choose one person to present your plan to the rest of the class.</h4>
<h4 class="page-title">TESOL- Four Language Skills- Reading</h4>
<h4><strong>Reading</strong></h4>
<h4>The written word surrounds us daily, at every turn; we realize that we are members of a literate society. Keep in mind, however, that interactive, integrated-skills approaches to language teaching emphasize the interrelationship of skills.</h4>
<h4>In the previous two sections, we looked at types of spoken language so you could identify the kinds of language your listening and speaking techniques should include. Here, we do the same for reading and writing. Each genre has certain rules or conventions for its manifestation. Consider the following:</h4>
<table width="689">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="255">
<h4>·    Non-fiction: reports, editorials, essays, articles, references, etc.</h4>
<h4>·    Fiction: novels, short stories, jokes, drama, poetry</h4>
<h4>·    Letters: personal, business</h4>
<h4>·    Greeting cards</h4>
<h4>·    Diaries, journals</h4>
<h4>·    Memos, messages</h4>
<h4>·    Announcements</h4>
<h4>·    Academic writing:' short answer test responses, reports, essays, theses, books, etc.</h4>
<h4>·    Questionnaires</h4>
<h4>·    Directions, maps.</h4>
<h4>·    Labels</h4>
<h4>·    Signs</h4>
<h4>·    Recipes</h4>
<h4>·    Bills</h4>
<h4>·    Menus</h4>
<h4>·    Schedules</h4>
<h4>·    Advertisements: commercial, personal</h4>
<h4>·    Etc.</h4>
<h4></h4>
</td>
<td width="255">
<h4><strong><u>Vowels’ Appendix</u></strong></h4>
<h4><strong>A</strong></h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>hate, make, mate</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>bank, jam, fat</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>hard,</h4>
dark
<h4>, bark</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>ball, small, fall</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4></h4>
<h4><strong>E</strong></h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>be, sleep, see</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>pet, bed, bet</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4></h4>
<h4><strong>I</strong></h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>ripe, bite, cite</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>sin, bit, sit</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4></h4>
<h4><strong>O</strong></h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>stop, pot, top</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>hope, stone, rope</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>cool, broom, stool</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4><strong> </strong></h4>
<h4><strong>U</strong></h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>cut, cuff, gun</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>tube, ruse, due</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>fur, burn, Bursa</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4>busy, business</h4>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h4>Most second-language learners who are already literate in their native languages will be familiar with all of these genres in their mother tongues! For them, reading comprehension is primarily a matter of developing appropriate, efficient comprehension strategies. Following are ten such strategies:</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>Identify the purpose</h4>
in
<h4>reading</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Use graphemic rules and patterns to aid in bottom-up decoding (for beginning level learners). Consider. How you might provide hints and pointers on such patterns as these:</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>"short" vowel sound in VC patterns (bat, him, leg, which, etc.)</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>"long" vowel sounds in VCe patterns (final silent e) (late, time, bite, etc.)</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>"long" vowel 'sounds in VV patterns (seat, coat, etc.)</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>distinguishing "hard" 6 and g from "soft" c and g (cat vs. city, game vs. gem, etc.)</h4>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h4>Use efficient, silent reading techniques for relatively rapid comprehension (for intermediate to advanced levels). You can help your learners to increase efficiency by teaching a few silent reading rules:</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>You don't need to pronounce the word to yourself.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Try to perceive more than one word visually at a time, even phrases.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Unless a word is crucial to global understanding, skip over it and attempt to find its meaning through context.</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4>Skimming. It consists of quickly running one's eyes across a whole text to get the gist. It gives readers the advantage of being able to predict the purpose of the passage, the main topic or message, and possibly some of the developing or supporting ideas.</h4>
<h4>Scanning. Quickly searching for some particular piece of information (names, dates, definition of a key concept, etc.) without reading through the whole text.</h4>
<h4>Semantic mapping or clustering. By inducing order and hierarchy to a passage, the reader will provide some order to the chaos of long strings of ideas and events.</h4>
<h4>Guessing</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>The meaning of a word</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>A grammatical relationship</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>A discourse relationship</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Implied meaning</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4>Still, readers should utilize their skills and put forth as much effort as possible to be on target with their hypotheses, to be reasonably accurate.</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>Vocabulary analysis. The students can analyze unrecognizable words in terms of what they know about it.</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>Look for prefixes that may give clues</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Look for suffixes</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Look for roots that are familiar</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Look for semantic context (topic) for clues</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>Distinguish between literal and implied meanings.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Capitalize on discourse markers to process relationships.</h4>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Enumerative: firstly, secondly, to begin with, eventually, finally, in the end, etc.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Additive: again, also, furthermore, equally, now, by the way, etc.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Logical Sequence: so far, altogether, overall, to sum up, hence, thus, in consequence, etc.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Explicative: namely, in other words, for example, etc.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Contrastive: alternatively, rather, on the other hand, instead, anyway, still, though, in spite of, etc.</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4>A variety of reading performance in the language classroom is derived more from the variety of texts to which you can expose students than from the variety of overt types of performance. Consider the chart:</h4>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="50"></td>
<td colspan="3" width="169">
<h4>Classroom reading performance</h4>
</td>
<td width="52"></td>
<td width="61"></td>
<td width="58"></td>
<td width="53"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="50"></td>
<td width="60"></td>
<td width="55"></td>
<td width="54"></td>
<td width="52"></td>
<td width="61"></td>
<td width="58"></td>
<td width="53"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="50">
<h4>Oral</h4>
</td>
<td width="60"></td>
<td width="55"></td>
<td width="54"></td>
<td width="52">
<h4>Silent</h4>
</td>
<td width="61"></td>
<td width="58"></td>
<td width="53"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="50"></td>
<td width="60"></td>
<td width="55"></td>
<td width="54"></td>
<td width="52"></td>
<td width="61"></td>
<td width="58"></td>
<td width="53"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="50"></td>
<td width="60"></td>
<td width="55">
<h4>Intensive</h4>
</td>
<td width="54"></td>
<td width="52"></td>
<td width="61"></td>
<td width="58">
<h4>Extensive</h4>
</td>
<td width="53"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="50"></td>
<td width="60"></td>
<td width="55"></td>
<td width="54"></td>
<td width="52"></td>
<td width="61"></td>
<td width="58"></td>
<td width="53"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="50"></td>
<td width="60">
<h4>Linguistic</h4>
</td>
<td width="55"></td>
<td width="54">
<h4>Content</h4>
</td>
<td width="52"></td>
<td width="61">
<h4>Skimming</h4>
</td>
<td width="58">
<h4>Scanning</h4>
</td>
<td width="53">
<h4>Global</h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="50"></td>
<td width="60"></td>
<td width="55"></td>
<td width="54"></td>
<td width="52"></td>
<td width="61"></td>
<td width="58"></td>
<td width="53"></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h4>Silent reading is subcategorized into intensive (focusing on the linguistic or semantic detail of one section) and extensive (over the entire selection, aimed at the general understanding of the text).</h4>
<h4>For advanced levels, the disadvantages of too much oral reading can quickly come into play such as it not being a very authentic language activity or the fact that many students may lose attention while one is reading. However; at the beginning and intermediate levels, oral reading can Serve as an evaluative method.</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>Serve to add some extra student participation if you want to highlight a reading passage.</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4></h4>
<h4><strong>Listed below are some principles for designing interactive reading techniques:</strong></h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>In an interactive curriculum, make sure that you don't overlook the importance of specific instruction in reading skills. There is much to be gained by focusing on reading skills rather than simply expecting the students to learn proper reading by absorption.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Techniques should be intrinsically motivating. Reading is, no doubt, relevant in "real-life." Use different genres of texts to illustrate this point along with focusing on your students' personal goals.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Techniques should utilize authentic language and contexts. It is important to distinguish between simple texts and simplified texts and to understand sources of complexity in reading material. From adds to reports to essays, texts are available that are grammatically and lexically simple. "Simplified" texts arc not always easier than the original because their artificiality is sensed.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Encourage the development of reading' strategies.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Include both bottom-up and top-down techniques. Amidst the "communication" craze, make sure that you give enough classroom time to focus on the building blocks of written language.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Consider subdividing your techniques into pre-reading, during reading, and after reading phases.</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>Spend some time introducing a topic, encouraging skimming and scanning.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>There may be particular facts or rhetorical devices that students should take note of while they read, giving them a sense of purpose.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Comprehension questions, vocabulary study, identifying the author's purpose, discussing the author's line of reasoning, examining grammatical structures, etc.</h4>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Build some evaluative</h4>
aspect
<h4>of your techniques. Consider some of the following overt responses that indicate comprehension:</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>Doing- the reader responds physically to a command</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Choosing- the reader selects from alternative posed orally or in writing</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Transferring- the reader summarizes orally what is read</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Answering- the reader answers questions about the message</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Condensing- the reader outlines or takes notes on a passage</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Extending- the reader provides an ending to a story</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Duplicating- the reader translates the message into the native language</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Modelling- the reader puts together a toy, for example, after reading directions for assembly</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Conversing- the reader engages in a conversation that indicated appropriate processing of information.</h4>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
https://youtu.be/8wfH99DeKfY

<strong>Exercises and Activities</strong>
<h4>Two reading lessons: Following are passages from two different ESL textbooks designed to teach reading skills. The first passage is designed for beginners; the second is intended for advanced students.</h4>
<h4>Lesson # 1 is from <em>Basics in Reading </em>and illustrates the use of natural, authentic language and tasks at the beginning level. Some attention is given to bottom-up skills, but not at the expense of top-down processing, even at this level.</h4>
<h4>Lesson #2 is from <em>Challenges: Process Approach to Academic English </em>and illustrates the use of an article from a popular magazine for advanced level classes. Notice the mostly top-down processing is emphasized on the assumption at this level; the greater need is for understanding the organization and purpose of the article. In a topically related piece of authentic material, a sample of classified ads, scanning is practiced and followed up with a writing activity.</h4>
<h4><strong> </strong></h4>
<strong>RAINFORESTS</strong>
<h4>by Scott Adelson</h4>
<h4>Have you ever seen a rain forest? Where do rain forests grow? What is unusual or unique about rain forests? Are they important to the world?</h4>
<h4>This text is about special forests in tropical areas of the world that are being cut down, and about a particular group that is trying to save them.</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4><strong>Vocabulary to Watch for</strong></h4>
</li>
</ul>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="72">
<h4>debt</h4>
<h4>organization</h4>
<h4>conservation</h4>
<h4>reserve</h4>
<h4>basin</h4>
<h4>region</h4>
<h4>savannah</h4>
</td>
<td width="270">
<h4>-the money you owe to another person</h4>
<h4>-group</h4>
<h4>-protecting the land and the animals</h4>
<h4>-a safe place for animals and nature</h4>
<h4>-a valley where there is a river</h4>
<h4>-area, large place</h4>
<h4>-dry, flat land; plain</h4>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h4><strong> </strong></h4>
<h4><strong>READ</strong></h4>
<h4>In many tropical countries, people are cutting down rain forests to make room for farms. They hope that the farms will make money for them so that they can pay their debts. But a new organization is trying to help these countries save their forests. The name of this organization is Conservation International. Conservation International pays countries not to cut down their rainforests.</h4>
<h4>Their first agreement was with Bolivia, for a 4,000,000-acre reserve in the Amazon River basin in northeastern Bolivia. The region has savannahs, dark woods, and rain forests. It is famous for the different plants and unusual wildlife that live there.</h4>
<h4>Bolivia and Conservation International will take care of the reserve together.</h4>
<h4>This idea of helping countries makes rainforest reserves is so unusual that Brazil and Ecuador, which are both interested in this program, are already having talks with Conservation International.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<strong>RESPOND</strong><strong>     (Understanding the Details)</strong>
<h4>Do you understand the text?</h4>
<h4>Try to answer the following questions. You may look in the text.</h4>
<h4>Practice <em>scanning </em>for important words or numbers.</h4>
<h4>Can you do this exercise in five minutes?</h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>Why do some tropical countries cut down their rainforests?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>What is the name of the organization that is helping to save rainforests?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>What country did they do business with first?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>How much land did they get for a reserve?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Where is the reserve/ sanctuary located?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Why is this reserve important to save?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Who will take care of the reserve?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>What other countries are interested in this program?</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<strong>The Big Picture: Reading for the Main Idea</strong>
<h4>What do you think is the most important idea in this text?</h4>
<h4>__ a. Small countries need help to save their rainforests.</h4>
<h4>__ b. Bolivia is taking care of its rain forests in the Amazon River Basin.</h4>
<h4>__ c. Conservation groups are trying to help tropical countries save their rainforests.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4><strong>DISCUSS  (</strong><strong>What Do You Think?)</strong></h4>
<h4>Are people in your country worried about conservation?</h4>
<h4>Do you think it is a good idea to pay countries not to cut down their forests?</h4>
<h4>What do you think is the most important conservation problem?</h4>
<h4></h4>
<strong><em>LESSON 2</em></strong>

<strong><em>OUR FUTURE STOCK</em></strong>

<strong>About the Selection:</strong>
<h4>In the first lesson, you had an opportunity to explore some of your thoughts about change and the future of your field or occupation. Now you will have a chance to compare your predictions for the future with those of experts who have studied these issues in depth. The following reading selection is from the popular science magazine Omni. In 1982, the editors of Omni gathered information from various U.S. government agencies and industry experts. They used this information to develop a picture of what the workforce and the economy of the future may look like. This selection is an excerpt from the article reporting their predictions. As you read through it, consider whether the changes mentioned here are similar to those you wrote about in lesson 1.</h4>
&nbsp;

<strong>The First Reading</strong>
<h4>Before You Read: Anticipating the Topic</h4>
<h4>Look at the title and graphics. Stock often refers to an investment or an accumulation of something for future use. Judging from the subtitles and the pictures, what do you think capital refers to in this case?</h4>
<h4>What type of future developments is the focus of this excerpt?</h4>
<h4>Based on the results of your brainstorming in lesson 1, write two to three sentences about the kinds of careers and workplace changes one could" put stock in" (expect; have faith in) for the future.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4><strong>As You Read: looking for the </strong><strong>General</strong> <strong>Ideas</strong></h4>
<h4>First, skim the article quickly to discover its main points and general organization.  Then do the activities that follow. Later, in your second reading, you can go through the entire article more carefully or focus in on particular sections to pick up the specific details and development of the most important points. You will see that two or three quick, purposeful readings will be more efficient and productive than one slow, detailed reading.</h4>
<h4><em>Don't worry about vocabulary! </em>As you read, you will find words you do' not know. Don't worry about these. Either guess their meanings or skip them entirely.  Do <em>not </em>look up any words in the dictionary at this time. To do so would only slow you down and prevent you from' focusing on the key points. Vocabulary exercises will follow.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4><strong>OUR FUTURE STOCK:</strong></h4>
<h4><strong>A Survey of Jobs, New Technology, and the</strong></h4>
<h4><strong>World Economy in the Next Millennium</strong></h4>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="221">
<h4>During the next 50 years, an incredible array of new technologies is expected to move from the lab to the world of business.</h4>
<h4>"We are already seeing evidence of this today. Robots are replacing humans on the production lines. Microcomputers have become fixtures in offices. Biofactories are beginning to manufacture batches of engineered human insulin. The coming decades promise to be especially volatile and exciting for American business. The expected upheaval will profoundly change</h4>
</td>
<td width="221">
<h4>not only our lives but those of our children and grandchildren.</h4>
<h4>For the more developed nations, this era of turmoil will be marked by economic difficulties, problems with waste and pollution, and continually dwindling resources.</h4>
<h4>By contrast, the Third World countries will spearhead a new industrial age with the same fervour and energy that characterized American industrial expansion in the days of Vanderbilt, Carnegie, Morgan, and Rockefeller.</h4>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h4>1 volatile: changeable</h4>
<h4>2 dwindling: becoming smaller and smaller (in amount)</h4>
<h4><strong> </strong></h4>
<h4><strong>After You Read</strong></h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4><strong>Identifying the Main Idea</strong></h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4>DIRECTIONS:  Choose the answer that best expresses the main idea.</h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>Based on paragraphs 1 and 2, choose the statement that best expresses the main idea of the article.</h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>Industrialized nations will face many problems in the years ahead.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>New technological developments will significantly change our lives and the lives of our children.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Robots will replace humans on factory production lines.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Change is everywhere.</h4>
</li>
</ol>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>The main idea for the section "Job Markets and Careers" is:</h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>Our future world will be very different from today's world.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Formwork will be mostly automated and computerized in the future.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>There will be more office jobs and fewer factory jobs in the future.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>New technology will create many new jobs and professions and will make many old ones outdated.</h4>
</li>
</ol>
</li>
</ol>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4><strong>Guessing Vocabulary from Context</strong></h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4>When you encounter an unfamiliar vocabulary in an English reading selection, what is your typical response? Do you bring out your bilingual or English monolingual dictionary to look up the word? Do you then spend precious moments looking for all the definitions to decide which one fits? Have you ever finally agreed on a definition only to realize that you have forgotten what you were reading and must begin the sentence or paragraph all over again?</h4>
<h4>Over-reliance on a dictionary not only slows down your reading but may interfere with your comprehension as well: A better strategy is to use the <strong>context, </strong>the words, and sentences surrounding a particular word, to help you guess that word's meaning. Usually, the assumptions you make will be accurate enough for you to understand the author's ideas. When they are not, or when the terms require an exact technical definition, you can use your dictionary as a backup resource.</h4>
<h4>DIRECTIONS: The following exercise contains words taken from the reading selection.</h4>
<h4>Use the new context to select the most appropriate meaning.</h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>Just as the invention of the automobile rendered ·horse-drawn carriages obsolete in modern cities, so the use of computers and word processors will make the ordinary typewriter much scarcer in offices of the future.</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="86">
<h4>Render obsolete:</h4>
</td>
<td width="356">
<h4>a.     cause it to be outdated and no longer useful</h4>
<h4>b.     cause it to increase in price</h4>
<h4>c.     cause it to change</h4>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h4></h4>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="86">
<h4>scarcer:</h4>
</td>
<td width="356">
<h4>a.     more common</h4>
<h4>b.     more efficient</h4>
<h4>c.     rarer</h4>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<ol start="2">
 	<li>
<h4>Because business computers are becoming more and more involved, many office workers have had to get new training to handle these sophisticated electronic systems.</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="86">
<h4>sophisticated:</h4>
</td>
<td width="356">
<h4>a. complex</h4>
<h4>b. business</h4>
<h4>c. worldly</h4>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<ol start="3">
 	<li>
<h4>Computers are even becoming more prevalent in American' schools and homes; perhaps in another twenty years, every' school-age child in the United States will be able to operate a computer.</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="86">
<h4>prevalent:</h4>
</td>
<td width="356">
<h4>a. large</h4>
<h4>b. common</h4>
<h4>c. expensive</h4>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<ol start="4">
 	<li>
<h4>Some automobile factories have begun to automate their assembly lines by using robots instead of human workers. Automation will increase the amount of money needed for machinery but will decrease the labour cost.</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="86">
<h4>automate:</h4>
</td>
<td width="356">
<h4>a. to increase the number of human workers</h4>
<h4>b. to produce a greater variety of products</h4>
<h4>c. to operate or control something by machine rather than by human labour</h4>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h4>automation: the noun form of <em>automating, </em>referring to the process of automating</h4>
<ol start="5">
 	<li>
<h4>Unlike white-collar workers, who usually work in an office, blue-collar workers may be found in many different work settings. For example, they may work outdoors to construct a new highway, or they may assemble new cars in an auto factory or repair damaged ones in a mechanic shop.</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="104">
<h4>Blue-collar workers:</h4>
</td>
<td width="338">
<h4>a. business executives</h4>
<h4>b. secretaries</h4>
<h4>c. manual labourers</h4>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<ol start="6">
 	<li>
<h4>The early industrial revolution contributed to the demise of the feudal lords and the rise of the bourgeoisie. Likewise, the new technological revolution may herald significant social and economic changes in the societies of the future.</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="86">
<h4>demise:</h4>
</td>
<td width="356">
<h4>a. creation</h4>
<h4>b. the loss of power</h4>
<h4>c. the gain in power</h4>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="86">
<h4>herald:</h4>
</td>
<td width="356">
<h4>a. introduce</h4>
<h4>b. end</h4>
<h4>c. respond to</h4>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<ol start="7">
 	<li>
<h4>Blue-collar workers were initially given this name because of the blue work shirts they often wore. Given this information and the preceding vocabulary clues, reread paragraph 4. Can you guess what or who the "steel-collar workers" are who are replacing the blue-collar workers? Write your answer in the space provided.</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4>Steel-Collar worker:</h4>
<h4><strong> </strong></h4>
<h4><strong>The Second Reading</strong></h4>
<h4><strong>Before You Read: Knowing Your Purpose</strong></h4>
<h4>In the first reading you were looking for the main ideas of the article; this time, your purpose is to see how these ideas are supported. You might want to think about the following questions as you read:</h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>What is the main change that will take place in the workforce?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>What types of jobs will be affected by this change?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>What are some specific examples of the jobs and careers we might expect to see in the future?</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4></h4>
<h4><strong>After You Read</strong></h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4><strong>Understanding the Author's Plan</strong></h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4>To better understand what you read, it is often helpful to consider the author's plan of organization and method of development. In the following exercise the purpose of each paragraph in the section "Job Markets and Careers" is explained in the left-hand column.</h4>
<h4>DIRECTIONS: Read each explanation and then answer the comprehension questions to the right.</h4>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="176">
<h4><strong>Authors' Plan</strong></h4>
<h4>Paragraph 3: states the main idea for this section: The new technological revolution will create many new jobs and make old jobs obsolete.</h4>
<h4>Paragraph 4: expands the main idea by defining the principal trend in the job market.</h4>
<h4>Paragraphs 4-8: discuss specific types of work and the expected developments in each.</h4>
<h4>Paragraph 4: examines factory work.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>Paragraphs 5-6: discuss office work.</h4>
</td>
<td width="266">
<h4><strong>Comprehension Questions</strong></h4>
<h4>1. What kind of knowledge will the new jobs require workers to have?</h4>
<h4>2. What will happen to many of the existing jobs and skills?</h4>
<h4>3. Do the authors give examples of outdated jobs? What are they?</h4>
<h4>4 What is the most important change taking place ill the American job market?</h4>
<h4>5. What will cause the "demise of the blue-collar worker?"</h4>
<h4>Why?</h4>
<h4>6. What has been the result of the automation which has already occurred in General Motors and U.S. Steel factories?</h4>
<h4>7. Will office and service jobs be plentiful or scarce in the future?</h4>
<h4>8. What kind of workers will be needed to fill these positions?</h4>
<h4>9. What is meant by the "paperless office?"</h4>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h4>We can see that the authors have established a particular purpose for each paragraph.  Recognizing the function of each section helps us to understand the ideas presented in the reading.</h4>
<h4><strong>A Deeper Look: Discussion Questions</strong></h4>
<h4>DIRECTIONS: Discuss the following questions in small groups. Compare your answers with those of your classmates.</h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>The authors of "Our Future Stock" predict greater demand for technically skilled labour and a' decreased demand for unskilled labour. How do you think this will affect employment in industrialized nations? Have these effects already been seen in some areas?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>How can the problem of displaced workers be resolved? Give examples.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>In paragraph 2, the authors say, "the Third World countries will spearhead a new industrial age ...” In a later section (not included in this textbook) they discuss several factors that will contribute to this advance in Third World countries. These factors include:</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4>-large populations</h4>
<h4>-significant amounts of unused resources</h4>
<h4>-(in some cases) conservative governments that are opposed to labour legislation and antipollution laws.</h4>
<h4>Do you agree that these factors may contribute to rapid economic development in many developing countries? Why or why not? If possible, give examples of specific countries to support your view.</h4>
<ol start="4">
 	<li>
<h4>Have the technological advances mentioned in this article affected your nation or area? In what ways? What will these changes mean for your future?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Some critics of the new technology argue that if humans rely on computers and robots, we will become mentally lazy; we will lose our artistic creativity and our ability or desire to invent new ways of doing things. Do you agree? Why or why not?</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="194">
<h4></h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>Paragraph 7: introduces other new occupations of the future.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>Paragraph 8: discusses farm work.</h4>
</td>
<td width="306">
<h4>10. What have two major developments contributed to the growth of the paperless office?</h4>
<h4>11. How do the examples given in paragraph 7 show the "drastic" change in the workplace? Choose one example and explain it.</h4>
<h4>12. Why will farmworkers as we know them to be scarcer in the next century?</h4>
<h4>13. Who will perform the unskilled labour on the farms?</h4>
<h4></h4>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h4></h4>
<h4><strong>Becoming an Efficient Reader: Scanning'</strong></h4>
<h4>To scan is to read quickly to locate specific information or details.</h4>
<h4>On the next page is an imaginary Help Wanted section of the classified ads for the year 2020. The jobs listed in this section are based on the predictions made in the previous article and from other sources. The form of this ad section is similar to that used in many U.S. newspapers.</h4>
<h4>DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions by scanning the Help Wanted ads first, observe how the information is organized in the ads. Then, read each question carefully to understand what is being asked. To locate the information you need, move your eyes quickly' over the printed page, paying particular attention to bold headlines and keywords Finally, write the answers in the spaces provided.</h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>What is the date of this ad section?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Where is there a position open for a space traffic controller? How many <em>jobs </em>are available?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>To be hired as the robot psychologist at West Docks Engineering Corporation, what experience must you have? Is this</h4>
same
<h4>experience required for the position at Robopsyche Institute?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>If you enjoy working on a team with other robot psychologists, which position would you desire?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>If you were looking for training in a space-related field, which position would you request?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>What benefits are available for new</h4>
salespeople
<h4>at Compu-sales, Inc? Is on-the-job training offered for this post?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>What job is listed as a temporary position? How long will the job last? Is then a possibility that there will be a permanent position with this company in the future?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>If you are a teleconferencing coordinator (TC) and you speak several languages, where might you apply for a job? What languages are required?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Which TC position requires experience with TeleTech Systems?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>What position is available at Hayward State University? What qualifications are needed?</h4>
</li>
</ol>
https://youtu.be/6kPyJUDTo0A
<h4><strong>Teaching Strategic Reading</strong></h4>
<h4><em>by: Joy Janzen</em></h4>
<h4><em>Mircea </em>is a conscientious student. When he is told he will be tested on the contents of Chapter 2 in the textbook, he looks up every unknown word in the dictionary to fix the information in his memory. Despite his extensive preparations, he doesn’t do very well on the test, though he says he spent hours preparing. Lia, on the other hand, excels on the exam, but she has approached the text in a very different way. Before she reads the chapter, she skims through it, looking at subheadings and graphics so as to give her a general idea of what the text will be about. As she reads, she connects the material in the chapter to what she already knows. She frequently asks herself questions about the text, looking back or ahead to link one part of the documents to another. When she is puzzled by the content, she searches for clues in the context, tries to paraphrase, or considers what she knows about text structure. In short, Lia is reading like an expert, while Mircea is relying on just one technique. The difference between the two is in their use of reading strategies.</h4>
<strong> </strong>

<strong>IMPLICATIONS OF READING STRATEGY RESEARCH  </strong><strong>FOR TEACHERS</strong>
<h4>Reading strategies can be defined as “plans for solving problems encountered in constructing meaning” (Duffy, 1993, p. 232). They range from bottom-up vocabulary strategies, such as looking up an unknown word in the dictionary, to more comprehensive actions, such as connecting what is being read to the reader’s background knowledge. Research in the L1 and L2 fields has demonstrated that strategy use is different in more proficient and less proficient readers. More proficient readers use different types of strategies, and they use them in a variety of ways (Block, 1986, 1992; Jimenez, Garcia, &amp; Pearson, 1995; Pressley, Beard El-Dinary, &amp; Brown, 1992). Moreover, reading strategies can be taught to students, and when taught, strategies help improve student performance on tests of comprehension and recall (Carrell, 1985; Carrell, Pharis, &amp; Liberto, 1989; Pearson &amp; Fielding, 1991.)</h4>
<h4>But what do these research results really mean for the classroom teacher? Given that strategies can be taught, and that one goal of teaching reading is to help students develop as strategic readers, how should this teaching be carried out? Strategy instruction has been discussed in general (see, e.g., Chamot &amp; O’Malley, 1994), but in TESOL little has been published that relates to teaching reading strategies in an ongoing classroom reading program. This is not the case, however, in the L1 field, and one answer to the pedagogical dilemma is to adopt methods that have been found successful in L1 teaching to an ESL situation. In the teaching approach of Brown and Palincsar (1989), for example, students are taught four reading strategies: summarizing, predicting, clarifying, and asking questions. Versions of this have been tried with L2 students and have been found helpful (Cotterall, 1990; Hewitt, 1995). In the L1 field today, however, state-of-the-art reading strategy instruction has moved to a more comprehensive approach.</h4>
<strong> </strong>

<strong>TEACHING READING: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH</strong>
<h4>What is sometimes termed the <em>transactional </em>teaching approach to strategy instruction has several characteristics that deserve attention.</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>It is embedded in a content area so that students are learning strategies while they are engaged in their regular reading for a variety of purposes.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Strategies are taught through direct explanation, teacher</h4>
modelling
<h4>, and feedback. Students are never in doubt as to what the strategies are, where and when they can be used, and how they are used. The teacher models expert</h4>
behaviour
<h4>by reading and thinking aloud. The students also read and think aloud in class, and their strategy is supported by the teachers’ feedbacks.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Strategies are constantly recycled over new texts and tasks. The students encounter individual strategies and groups of strategies time and time again. In this way, students better understand the usefulness of strategies, and there is</h4>
transfer
<h4>of training from one type of text or task to another.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Strategy use develops over the long term. It is estimated that it takes several years for L2 students to develop as strategic readers (Beard El-Dinary, Pressley, &amp; Schuder, 1992). Certainly, the decontextualized teaching of individual strategies for a short period is not likely to have a long-term impact on students or to effectively help them develop as strategic readers (Gaskins, 1994; Pressley, Beard El-Dinary, &amp; Brown, 1992).  The purpose of this article is to describe how a version of this global approach to  teaching strategic reading is working successfully in one ESL classroom.</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4></h4>
<strong>ONE ESL CLASSROOM: HOW WE APPROACH GROUP</strong>

<strong>READING ACTIVITIES</strong>
<h4>I teach a reading lab class in an intensive university-level English program. The intensive program is designed to prepare students for mainstream study at either the graduate or the undergraduate level. The reading lab is one of many skills courses that supplement a content-based curriculum. In the reading class, we offer several activities: group reading, word recognition exercises, and individualized reading, as well as work with vocabulary. I will focus on the group reading activities in this article.</h4>
<h4>Because this reading class is oriented toward instruction in one skill, it was not possible to embed strategy teaching entirely in content instruction, where all four skills would be addressed. The next-best alternative was to focus on one text for the course of a semester so that some of the benefits of content instruction could be present (e.g., heightened knowledge of a given topic and recurring vocabulary, both of which aid in reading comprehension). The text I selected was <em>Special Effects in the Movies </em>(Powers, 1989), a book written for high school students who are native speakers of English. While using this approach to teaching reading strategies in an earlier semester, I found <em>Special Effects </em>to be on an appropriate level for a similar group of students. The topic has also proved to be a fruitful one because all of the students in the class have seen many movies and can make immediate and extended connections between their background knowledge and the text content.</h4>
<strong> </strong>

<strong>CLASSROOM PROCESSES</strong>
<h4>Effective instruction in strategic reading entails a number of classroom processes or moves. I see five (which overlap to some degree) as primary. These are:</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>general strategy discussion</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>teacher</h4>
modelling</li>
 	<li>
<h4>student reading</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>analysis of strategies used by the teacher or by students when thinking aloud</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>explanation/discussion of individual strategies on a regular basis.</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4>I organized my class activities to reflect these processes.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<strong>GENERAL STRATEGY DISCUSSION</strong>
<h4>In general strategy discussion, reading strategies and strategic reading are defined. The teacher explains, and the class discusses why learning and practicing strategies are important. The following three points are examples of what I try to elicit from students: (1) Strategies help to improve reading comprehension as well as efficiency in reading; (2) By using strategies, students will be reading in the way that expert readers do; (3) Strategies help readers to process the text actively, to monitor their comprehension, and to connect what they are reading to their own knowledge and to other parts of the text.</h4>
<h4>I use this type of discussion not just in initial class periods as a part of explaining the method I am using to approach reading, but also on a recurring basis to ensure that students are aware of the value of what they are doing. And to make sure that they are connecting their progress in reading to the use of strategies. Another goal of our general discussions about the value of strategies is to encourage the transfer of training to other reading tasks. Although initially, the teacher may need to explain the value of using strategies, the students are soon able to relate their own views on strategies and policy use. Through discussion, students gain a deeper understanding of their reading behaviour, and they come to realize that they use strategies in reading in their L1.</h4>
&nbsp;

<strong>TEACHER MODELING</strong>
<h4>A second important feature of strategy instruction is regular teacher modelling of expert behaviour. In doing this, I read aloud a short portion of the text, and, as I do so, I think aloud. Here is a short excerpt from a transcript early in the semester. (Words in italics represent the actual text.)</h4>
<h4>Okay, um, the chapter, the title of the chapter is <em>Dreams and Screams </em>– um, well, what does that mean? Um. I know the book is about special effects, but what, why is the chapter called <em>Dreams and Screams</em>? I don’t know. <em>Movies have always had the power to make people believe that what they see on screen is happening</em>.</h4>
<h4>Okay, so is this what the author means by special effects? I don’t know. Um, okay. <em>Special effects add to that power</em>. Oh, so the author means that movies without special effects make people believe they see on their screens, but special effects make those movies more surprising, more amazing. (Someone says “um-hum”.) <em>By using special effects, filmmakers make “impossible” scenes seem real</em>. Okay, so movies seem real when we watch them, and special effects can make impossible things seem real. So maybe the author will say next what impossible things can seem real. <em>Through special effects, filmmakers have shown actors parting the waters of the Red Sea, flying to distant planets, and chopping off heads on Friday the 13th. </em>Okay, so I was right. The author is giving examples of special effects, impossible things that can seem real.</h4>
<h4>Here I can be observed using several strategies, which include asking questions, making predictions, checking those predictions, and summarizing or paraphrasing.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<strong>STUDENT READING</strong>
<h4>I also encourage students to read and think aloud from the very beginning, though I expect that familiarity with this process will take time. Reading and thinking aloud presents a very high cognitive load for L2 readers, yet not an impossible one. Here is an example of one student reading, also taken from early in the semester. (Words in italics represent the actual text.)</h4>
<h4>The title of the next is “<em>Simple mattes </em>” . . . And, so I think it would be, explain something more about, uh, this kind of special effect. <em>In its, in its simplest form, a matte is a black card held in front of the camera lens. This matte card can have many different shapes</em>. I think, he’s going to explain some more about the, um, maybe technical, some technical information. <em>It can be used to cover a large part of the image or just a small part, like a window or doorway. When a camera operator photographs a scene, the area is hidden behind the matte, the matte card does not show up on the filmed image</em>. I was almost right, he’s, uh, he was explaining the use, how do they use, how they use this kind of effect. I think that next we can, maybe we can find some examples.</h4>
<h4>In this excerpt, the reader can be heard predicting and checking the correctness of her predictions.</h4>
&nbsp;

<strong>ANALYSIS OF STRATEGY USE</strong>
<h4>After the students or I have read a portion of the text, we immediately analyze the strategic use of the reader through full class discussion: What did the reader do, and when did he or she do it? What strategies did the reader use? Analyzing the teacher’s reading is a step toward ensuring that the students get the full benefit from the teacher’s modelling behaviour. By discussing what the teacher did, they will be better able to incorporate effective strategy use into their reading.</h4>
<h4>When a student’s reading is under discussion, the identification and analysis of strategy use are intermixed with the teacher’s feedback on the reader’s behavior. This feedback can include prompting to use specific strategies or eliciting suggestions from other students as to what strategies might be helpful in solving comprehension problems.</h4>
&nbsp;

<strong>STRATEGY EXPLANATION AND DISCUSSION</strong>
<h4>The process of strategy identification and feedback entails the naming of strategies and repeated explanations on the teachers’ or students’ parts as to how to use the strategies. The explanation process can be facilitated by the use of graphic organizers such as the one in Table 1. From the first session, I ask the students to write down the strategies I or other readers use, as well as when they were used, as soon as each section of reading is completed. After they have written down this information individually, we name the strategies as a class and discuss their value, that is, why they should be used. After a few weeks of this type of discussion, I ask the class to work in small groups and to fill in charts such as the one in Table 1, with three columns headed: What, When, and Why. The examples are taken from charts made by the students themselves.</h4>
<h4>In subsequent sessions, we add to the charts, and at intervals, during the semester we revamp them completely. In this way, the students can remember the array of strategies we have covered, and we can also discuss how the strategies interconnect. The charts are always mounted on the chalkboard during class and serve as reference lists for strategies that have been used or could be utilized while reading.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<strong>HOMEWORK</strong>
<h4>Strategy use is reinforced outside the classroom through two types of homework. In the first type, students finish reading the material that we have begun in class and respond to various written prompts. Before finishing the chapter, they may preview the rest of the assigned text and predict what it will be about. While reading, they note questions they have and describe what other strategies they use or could be using while they read. After reading, they can summarize the chapter and predict what future chapters will be about. At the same time that they use these strategies, they also explain why using them is helpful or worthwhile. In this way, strategy homework does not become simply skill learning but requires thought and concentration. In the second type of homework, students keep track of the reading they do outside of class for pleasure or other courses. They note down what they have read, how much they have read, what strategies they have used in reading and their evaluation of the text. This type of homework is meant to reinforce strategic behaviour and to encourage the transfer of strategy training to other tasks. In completing these assignments in recent semesters, students listed a wide variety of approaches, as can be seen in the list in Table 2. Their evaluations of the texts also indicated that they were reading in an attentive, thoughtful manner. Occasionally, the students would note that they had not used any strategies to read a given text. This point makes it probable that the strategies the students did list were ones they had genuinely employed and that they did not simply put them down after the fact to finish off a homework assignment.</h4>
https://youtu.be/iu-yLD8qQM0

<strong>CONCLUSION</strong>
<h4>I have used this approach with high-intermediate level university students, but it has the potential for students at any level of instruction. It should be emphasized that transactional teaching, the basis for the method I am describing, was originally designed for elementary school classrooms. In adapting instruction in strategic reading from an L1 situation to an L2 environment, a crucial issue to consider is how fast the teacher should introduce new strategies. The rate depends mostly on whether the students appear to be identifying strategies easily and articulating strategy use as they read. Another factor to consider is how much information about strategic reading should be explained, rather than elicited. When students are already proficient in reading in their L1, they are often immediately able to relate what we are doing with strategies in English to their reading behaviour in their L1. This would not be the case with younger students, who may need a more direct explanation of the meaning and value of strategies. The results of using this method to date have been very positive. In class, all the students can read and think aloud, articulating strategy use as they go. They can identify strategies that other readers have used, as well as come up with convincing reasons why these strategies are important. When students fill out charts describing the reading they do outside of class; they identify strategies they have used. In class, students have said that strategy training helps them to understand their reading process better, in both their L1 and their L2.</h4>
<h4 class="page-title">TESOL- Four Language Skills- Writing</h4>
<h4><strong><em>Writing</em></strong></h4>
<h4>The previous section were listed many types of written language "forms." As you consider an ESL class that you might be teaching, how many of these types of writing will your students be likely to produce themselves? Those types that they will indeed need, 'whether for further studies or their ultimate academic/vocational goals, should then become the prime focus of "real" writing in your classroom.</h4>
https://youtu.be/nbZUKAamXDU
<h4>While various genres of written texts abound, classroom writing performance is, by comparison, limited. Consider the following five broad categories of class writing performance:</h4>
<h4><strong>
Imitative or writing down:</strong> At the beginning level of learning to write, students will simply "write down" English words and sentences to learn the conventions of the orthographic code. Some form of dictation falls into this category, and they typically involve these steps:</h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>The teacher reads a short paragraph once or twice at</h4>
normal
<h4>speed.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>The teacher reads the paragraph in short phrase units.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>During the pause, students write exactly what they hear.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>The teacher then reads the whole paragraph once more at a normal pace so students can check their writings.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Scoring of student's written work.</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4><strong>Intensive or controlled</strong>: This type of writing does not allow much if any, creativity on the part of the writer. Students may be asked to change all the present tense verbs in a paragraph to the past tense; in such a case, students may need to alter other time references in the paragraph. Guided writing offers a series of stimulators to writing.  For example, the teacher might get students to answer a series of questions after viewing a video.</h4>
<h4><strong>
Self-writing:</strong> Writing only with the self in mind as an audience such as note-taking.  Diary or journal writing also falls into this category but in this case, the journal is written for two audiences, the writer and the teacher who may choose to read the entry.</h4>
<h4><strong>Display writing:</strong> For all language students, short answer exercises, essay examinations, and even research reports will involve an element of the display.</h4>
<h4><strong>Real writing:</strong> Some classroom writing aims at the genuine communication of messages to an audience in need of those messages.</h4>
<h4><strong>Academic:</strong> Group problem-solving tasks, especially those that relate to current issues and other personally relevant topics, may have a writing component in which information is genuinely sought and conveyed. Peer-editing work adds to what would otherwise be an audience of one (the instructor) and provides real writing opportunities.</h4>
<h4><strong>Vocational/technical:</strong> Quite a variety of real writing can take place in classes of students studying English for advancement in their occupation (real letters, genuine directions for assembly or some operation, actual forms, etc.)</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4><strong>Personal:</strong> In virtually any ESL class, diaries, letters, postcards, notes, personal messages and other informal writing can take place, particularly in the context of an interactive class.</h4>
<h4>Again, here are some specific principles for designing writing techniques:</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>Consider and incorporate practices of good writers:</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Focus on a goal or main idea</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Perceptively gauge the audience</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Spend some time planning to write and follow a general plan</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Solicit and utilize feedback</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Patiently make as many revisions as needed</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Balance process and product</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Account for cultural/literal background: English rhetorical conventions may be different from the conventions of the students' native language.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Connect reading and writing: This way the students can gain valuable insights both about how they should write and about subject matter that may become the topic of their writing.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Provide as much authentic writing as possible.</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4></h4>
<h4>Frame your techniques regarding pre-writing, drafting, and revising stages: the prewriting stage encourages the generation of ideas, which can happen in numerous ways:</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>Extensively reading a passage</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Skimming or scanning a passage</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Conducting some outside research</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Brainstorming</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Clustering (begin with a keyword, then add other words using free association)</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Discussing a topic or question</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>The drafting and revising stages are the core of writing. Several strategies and skills apply to the drafting/revising process in writing:</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Peer-editing (accepting/using classmates' comments)</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Using the instructor's feedback</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>"Read-aloud" technique (in small groups or pairs, checking together for errors, the flow of ideas, etc.)</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Proofreading</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Techniques should be as interactive as possible</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Sensitively apply methods of responding to and correcting your student's writing.</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4>Remember that you are the students' ally, guide, and facilitator. The role of the consultant will be the most productive way to respond. Here are some guidelines for responding to the first draft:</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>Resist the temptation to treat minor grammatical errors. Rather, treat the major errors by underlining the error or making a check next to the line in which the error occurs.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Resist the temptation to rewrite a student's sentence</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Comment holistically, regarding the clarity of the overall thesis and the general structural organization.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Comment on the introductory paragraph</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Comment on the features that appear to be irrelevant to the topic</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Question clearly inadequate word choices and awkward expressions</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4>For the subsequent drafts, your responses can include all of the above in addition to:</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>Minor grammatical errors and mechanical errors (spelling, punctuation) should be indicated</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Comment on the specific strength and clarity of all main ideas.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Check cohesive devices within and across paragraphs.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>In academic papers, comment on the documentation, citing sources, evidence and other support.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Comment on the adequacy and strength of the conclusion.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Clearly instruct students on the formal conventions of writing such as:</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>A clear statement of the thesis topic or purpose</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Use of main ideas to develop or clarify the thesis</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Use of supporting ideas</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Supporting by "telling:" describing</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Supporting by "showing:" giving evidence, facts, statistics, etc.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Supporting by linking cause and effect</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Supporting by using comparison and contrast</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Make your final evaluation of student writing consistent with your overall approach. Six general categories are often the basis for the evaluation of student writing:</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Content: thesis statement, related ideas, development of ideas, use of description, consistent focus.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Organization: effectiveness of introduction, logical sequence of ideas, conclusion, appropriate length</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Discourse: topic sentences, paragraph unity, transitions, cohesion, rhetorical conventions, fluency, variation, etc.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Syntax</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Vocabulary</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Mechanics: punctuation, spelling, citation of references, neatness of appearance, etc.</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4></h4>
<h4><strong>Exercises and Activities</strong></h4>
<h4>For beginner-Level learners, primary language knowledge does not impede them from using authentic contexts in which to practice writing. They may write up</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>a birthday invitation and send them out to classmates, awaiting their answers</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>a postcard</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>their personal classified ads.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>etc.</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4></h4>
<h4>You may emphasize the use of a specific verb tense that was recently taught or hand them a list of 10 new vocabulary words from which they must include seven words in their text.</h4>
<h4>For intermediate to advanced-Level learners, you can determine the format of the text, and let the students chose the particular topic or vice versa: after having chosen the topic, let the students decide which form they want to adopt to express their ideas.</h4>
<h4><strong> </strong></h4>
<h4><strong>Generating ideas</strong></h4>
<h4><strong>Exercise # 1</strong></h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4><strong>Brainstorming.</strong></h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4>This process is a useful technique in writing because it permits you to approach a topic with an open mind. Because you do not judge your ideas as they emerge, you free yourself to come up with ideas that you might not even know you had. Brainstorming is one of several different ways to begin writing.</h4>
<h4>"Let's think about the future for a moment. Let's focus our attention on how it might affect your present or future job. Have you thought about the changes that may occur in your field? To help you think about this question, you are going to make two lists of ideas concerning changes in your area or the field you plan to enter.</h4>
<h4>DIRECTIONS: Use your knowledge and imagination to follow these steps:</h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>Prepare two sheets of paper with the following:</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>What changes have occurred in my field in the last twenty years?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>What changes do I expect to happen in my area in the next two decades?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>As quickly as possible, think of as many ideas as you can to answer the question on sheet a. Do not evaluate your thoughts. That will come later.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>When you think that you have written everything you can think of, go over the list to evaluate what you have written. Cross out the ideas that don't fit.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Repeat this process for sheet b.</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4></h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4><strong>Working in a group:</strong></h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4>In the preceding exercise, you worked individually, using brainstorming to establish your ideas, to follow your own train of thought. Another effective way to generate ideas is to work in a small group where you share your brainstormed ideas with the rest of the group members. By doing this, each of you will have an opportunity to expand further your ideas.</h4>
<h4>DIRECTIONS: Forma small group and use the following guidelines for your group discussion.</h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>Take turns reading your lists of changes in your field to each other.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Compare your classmates' lists to yours, looking for similarities and differences.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Mark the changes on your list that are similar.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Add to your list new ideas of changes that apply to your field.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>As a group, select three changes that applied to the area of each group member. If you have time, you can discuss these three ideas.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Choose a reporter from your group to share your three chances with the rest of the: class.</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4>Here is an example of what the compared lists of three students might appear. The changes that were similar to each list have been labelled.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="148">
<h4>Teaching- Toda</h4>
<h4>Attitudes toward teachers</h4>
<h4>Information explosion</h4>
<h4>Union activity</h4>
<h4>More job security</h4>
<h4>Better benefits</h4>
<h4>Larger class ·size</h4>
<h4>Computer as teaching tools</h4>
<h4>Computers for record</h4>
<h4>Keeping</h4>
<h4>Competition for jobs'</h4>
<h4>Higher diplomas</h4>
</td>
<td width="148">
<h4>Sales- Toda</h4>
<h4>Computerized inventory</h4>
<h4>Customer's bad attitudes</h4>
<h4>Distance from owners</h4>
<h4>Pressure</h4>
<h4>Incentive pay</h4>
<h4>Need to know more about</h4>
<h4>products</h4>
<h4>More responsibility</h4>
<h4>Fewer personnel</h4>
<h4>Tinie clocks</h4>
<h4>Better benefits</h4>
</td>
<td width="148">
<h4>Health care- Toda</h4>
<h4>Malpractice suits</h4>
<h4>Less respects</h4>
<h4>Pay</h4>
<h4>Educational demands</h4>
<h4>Pressure</h4>
<h4>Information increase</h4>
<h4>Consulting with others</h4>
<h4>Compensation for clients</h4>
<h4>Advertising</h4>
<h4>Computerized business</h4>
<h4>Computerized diagnosis</h4>
<h4>Less Dav/greater benefits</h4>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h4><strong> </strong></h4>
<h4><strong>Exercise #2</strong></h4>
<h4><strong> </strong></h4>
<h4><strong>Free writing</strong></h4>
<h4>You have just begun to explore the question of changes in your field. Some of your ideas will interest you more than others. Now you will have an opportunity to develop your thinking about one of these ideas.</h4>
<h4>DIRECTION: Follow these steps to generate further ideas on this topic.</h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>From your lists of changes, choose one idea that interested you.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Write that idea at the top of a clean sheet of paper</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>For ten minutes, write about this topic without stopping. This means that you should be writing something consistently.</h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>Write down everything that comes to your mind.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Do not judge your ideas</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Do not worry about your spelling and grammar</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>IF you run out of things to say, continue writing whatever comes to your mind.</h4>
</li>
</ol>
</li>
</ol>
<h4>This process is called free-writing. It is designed to help you free ideas that might not realize that you have. An important aspect of free writing is that you write without being concerned about spelling, punctuation, or grammar. Of course, these elements of writing are important, but students' concern about them,' can sometimes inhibit the free flow of their ideas. Freewriting is a technique to generate ideas; it should be used as a beginning, as an initial exploration of the ideas that you have about a topic.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4><strong>Exercise #3</strong></h4>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="221">
<h4><strong><em>LESSON 3</em></strong></h4>
<h4><strong><em> </em></strong></h4>
<h4><strong><em>COMPOSING </em></strong><strong>ON <em>YOUR OWN</em></strong></h4>
<h4></h4>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" width="221">
<h4><strong>DEVELOPED     DEVELOPING</strong></h4>
<h4><strong>COUNTRIES    COUNTRIES</strong></h4>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="33">
<h4>1950</h4>
</td>
<td width="30">
<h4>.83</h4>
</td>
<td width="21"></td>
<td width="39">
<h4>1.67</h4>
</td>
<td width="35"></td>
<td width="16"></td>
<td width="27"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="33">
<h4>1975</h4>
</td>
<td width="30">
<h4>1.09</h4>
</td>
<td width="21"></td>
<td colspan="2" width="74">
<h4>2.98</h4>
</td>
<td width="16"></td>
<td width="27"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="33">
<h4>2000</h4>
</td>
<td width="30">
<h4>1.27</h4>
</td>
<td width="21"></td>
<td colspan="3" width="90">
<h4>4.85</h4>
</td>
<td width="27"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="33">
<h4>2025</h4>
</td>
<td width="30">
<h4>1.39</h4>
</td>
<td width="21"></td>
<td colspan="4" width="117">
<h4>6.77</h4>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h4>populations in billions description</h4>
<h4>. Think about the possible purposes of each topic. How do you think those</h4>
purposes will affect the tone of each piece?

&nbsp;

<strong>Generating Ideas</strong>

&nbsp;

First, we need to find ways to unlock the hidden ideas we have in our minds. In this unit, you have learned to use brainstorming, free writing, and looping. Try these techniques in any combination that works for you. Reading also helps to general ideas. As you write, keep in the information you learned about this topic in the readings.

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="221">
<h4>In this unit, you have read about the issues surrounding the predicted popular-explosion.</h4>
<h4>You have also worked with important writing techniques such as showing and using facts and statistics. Let's now try to apply what you have learned with the writing process,</h4>
<h4><strong> </strong></h4>
<h4><strong>First Draft</strong></h4>
<h4><strong> </strong></h4>
<h4><strong>Choosing a Topic</strong></h4>
<h4>Directions: Choose one of the following topics to write about.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>A - Explain the information introduced in the following paragraph.</h4>
<h4>B - In the final paragraphs of the article "The World's Urban Explosion," the author poses the question of what the effects of the population explosion might be in the future. Imagine your city, town, or village in the year 2025. Imagine that the population predictions did, in fact, come true. Place yourself in the scene, and describe what you see.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4><em>Note: </em>Notice how different these topics are from one another. The first topic asks you to write an explanation which analyzes a graph. The second topic asks for</h4>
<h4></h4>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h4><strong>Figure 17.2</strong>. World Population Explosion.</h4>
<strong> </strong>
<h4><strong>Writing the First Draft</strong></h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>After exploring your thoughts, put them into paragraph form, keeping in mind how showing and using facts and statistics makes writing powerful and convincing. Our task here is· to discover how we can best express our ideas in the clearest manner possible so that our readers will receive the same message, with the same impact, that we intended.</h4>
<h4><strong> </strong></h4>
<h4><strong>Peer-editing</strong></h4>
<h4>What follows is an element of the writing process that is of particular importance: sharing what we have written with others, our readers, to see if we have managed to convey our intended meaning. This step can be a fascinating adventure. We step out of ourselves, to see what we have created through the eyes of others, to discover the impact of our words on the thoughts of our readers, so that we can then use the information to improve what we have written. We call this peer-editing.  Peer-editing is a natural sharing process. Not only do you get feedback from your classmates, but you also give feedback to them. It is a two-way street. You learn to be a better writer and a better reader. In the following exercise, you will work with several classmates, taking the roles of both reader and writer.</h4>
<h4>DIRECTIONS:  Work with a group of four other classmates who chose to write on the same topic as you did.</h4>
<ol>
 	<li>
<h4>Discuss the idea-generating techniques that you each used to write this composition.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Read each other's papers silently, and answer the following questions for each paper:</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>What do you like the most about writing?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>What is the main idea?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Who is the audience, and what is the purpose?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>What possible details does the writer use?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Where could the author add details to make the piece more convincing?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>What areas in writing seem unclear?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>How could the writer make the piece clearer?</h4>
</li>
</ol>
<h4></h4>
<h4>Now, for each paper, compare your notes to the questions to help the writer think of ways to improve the piece.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>Revising</h4>
<h4>You have gotten feedback about your composition from several classmates. Now you can use what you learned about your writing to improve it, to make it clearer and more convincing. Writers call this step of the process revising. All good writers go through several stages of revision because they want to make their writing the best it can be. At this point, they reconsider what they have written, get feedback from others, and then make changes.</h4>
<h4>Review your notes from your peer-editing session.  Think about the comments made by your peer-readers; in particular comments, they have agreed on. If you agree with them, you can revise the piece. Remember, however, that you are the final judge as to what you want to include or eliminate in your writing.</h4>
<h4>Make corrections directly on your first draft. Do not be afraid to mark up this paper. You can scratch out unnecessary or irrelevant information, squeeze ideas that you want· to add into the margin and even cut up and re-paste your document to change the order or make additions. You might be surprised to see the revising process of professional writers. Their drafts will often be illegible to anyone but themselves!</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>The Second Draft</h4>
<h4>Writing the Second Draft and Proofreading</h4>
<h4>Once you have made the necessary changes in your paper, you can rewrite it legibly. As you are rewriting, you may think of more changes that you would like to make. Do not hesitate to continue revising during this step. Writing takes time and a lot of thought. So take advantage of this stage to keep improving what you have already done. After you have rewritten your paper, go over it carefully to see if the language sounds correct and if your message seems complete and understandable. Finally, submit your paper to your teacher.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>Using Your Teacher's Feedback</h4>
<h4>When your paper is returned to you, spend time examining the comments your teacher made. This is a good opportunity to compare your classmates' responses to your teacher's, taking into account the changes you've done between .the original draft and the revised paper. Did you improve on the parts of your original paper that your classmates encouraged you to work? Did your teacher comment on aspects of your writing that your classmates did not comment on it? Share this information with the classmates you did peer-editing with. For each paper you looked at, compare the comments you made to the teacher's comments. Keep in mind the ideas you and your teacher had in common about each paper. Also, notice comments that your teacher made that you missed. This is valuable information. You'll use it the next time you write and the next time you do peer-editing.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>Keeping a Journal</h4>
<h4>In this unit, we read about population growth, about changes that we expect to take place in the future that will affect our lives. For a moment, reflect back in time. Try to visualize an area from your distant past, any place that sticks out in your mind. Now roll the clock back up to the present. If the place looks very different in the present, you've found your journal topic. If not, start again until you come up with a scene that has changed over a period. When you've found this place that has changed, write about it. You can choose to describe it as it was in the past, in the present, or you can do both. You might want to write about how the changes in the place have affected you, whatever aspect of the place you choose to write about, make sure that you have a single purpose, a central focus, and try to include the detail that helps to develop that main point only. Remember that when you choose to write about something that is familiar and important to you, the task of writing is easier and more pleasurable.</h4>
https://youtu.be/8j27mMyGWfM
<h4>The Writing Process and Process Writing</h4>
<h4><em>Anthony Seow</em></h4>
<h4>INTRODUCTION</h4>
<h4>The writing process as a private activity may be broadly seen as comprising four main stages: planning, drafting, revising and editing. As depicted in Figure 1, the stages are neither sequential nor orderly. In fact, as research has suggested, ‘many good writers employ a recursive, non-linear approach – the writing of a draft may be interrupted by more planning, and revision may lead to reformulation, with a great deal of recycling to earlier stages’ (Krashen, 1984, p. 17).</h4>
<h4>PROCESS WRITING</h4>
<h4>The term <em>process writing </em>has been bandied about for quite a while in ESL classrooms. It is no more than a <em>writing process approach </em>to teaching writing.</h4>
<h4>STAGES</h4>
<h4>Editing</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>PROCESS ACTIVATED</h4>
<h4>Planning</h4>
<h4>Drafting</h4>
<h4>Revising</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>PROCESS TERMINATED</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>Figure 1</h4>
<h4>The idea behind it is not really to dissociate writing entirely from the written product and to merely lead students through the various stages of the writing process but ‘to construct process-oriented writing instruction that will affect performance’ (Freedman, Dyson, Flower, &amp; Chafe, 1987, p. 13). To have an effective performance-oriented teaching program would mean that we need to systematically teach students problem-solving skills connected with the writing process that will enable them to realize specific goals at each stage of the composing process. Thus, process writing in the classroom may be construed as a program of instruction, which provides students with a series of, planned learning experiences to help them understand the nature of writing at every point.</h4>
<h4>Process writing as a classroom activity incorporates the four basic writing stages – planning, drafting (writing), revising (redrafting) and editing – and three other stages externally imposed on students by the teacher, namely, responding (sharing), evaluating and post-writing. Process writing in the classroom is highly structured as it necessitates the <em>orderly</em>teaching of process skills, and thus it may not, at least initially; give way to a free variation of writing stages cited earlier. Teachers often plan appropriate classroom activities that support the learning of specific writing skills at every stage. The planned learning experiences for students may be described as follows.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>PLANNING (PRE-WRITING)</h4>
<h4>Pre-writing is any activity in the classroom that encourages students to write. It stimulates thoughts for getting started. In fact, it moves students away from having to face a blank page toward generating tentative ideas and gathering information for writing. The following activities provide the learning experiences for students at this stage:</h4>
<h4>GROUP BRAINSTORMING</h4>
<h4>Group members spew out ideas about the topic. Spontaneity is important here. There are no right or wrong answers. Students may cover familiar ground first and then move off to more abstract or wild territories.</h4>
<h4>CLUSTERING</h4>
<h4>Students form words related to a stimulus supplied by the teacher. The words are circled and then linked by lines to show discernible clusters. Clustering is a simple yet powerful strategy: “Its visual character seems to stimulate the flow of association . . . and is particularly good for students who know what they want to say but just can’t say it” (Proett &amp; Gill, 1986, p. 6).</h4>
<h4>RAPID FREE WRITING</h4>
<h4>Within a limited time of 1 or 2 minutes, individual students freely and quickly write down single words and phrases about a topic. The time limit keeps the writers’ minds ticking and thinking fast. Rapid free writing is done when group brainstorming is not possible or because the personal nature of a certain topic requires a different strategy.</h4>
<h4><em>WH-</em>QUESTIONS</h4>
<h4>Students generate <em>who</em>, <em>why</em>, <em>what</em>, <em>where</em>, <em>when </em>and <em>how </em>questions about a topic. More such questions can be asked of answers to the first string of <em>wh-</em>questions, and so on. This can go on indefinitely.</h4>
<h4>In addition, ideas for writing can be elicited from multimedia sources (e.g., printed material, videos, films), as well as from direct interviews, talks, surveys, and questionnaires.</h4>
<h4>Students will be more motivated to write when given a variety of means for gathering information during pre-writing.</h4>
<h4>DRAFTING</h4>
<h4>Once sufficient ideas are gathered at the planning stage, the first attempt at writing – that is, drafting – may proceed quickly. At the drafting stage, the writers are focused on the fluency of writing and are not preoccupied with grammatical accuracy or the neatness of the draft. One dimension of good writing is the writer’s ability to visualize an audience. Although writing in the classroom is almost always for the teacher, the students may also be encouraged to write for different audiences, among whom are peers, other classmates, pen friends and family members. A conscious sense of audience can dictate a certain style to be used. Students should also have in mind a central idea that they want to communicate to the audience to give direction to their writing.</h4>
<h4>Depending on the genre of writing (narrative, expository or argumentative), an introduction to the subject of writing may be a <em>startling statement </em>to arrest the reader’s attention, a <em>short summary </em>of the rest of the writing, an <em>apt quotation</em>, a <em>provocative question</em>, a <em>general statement</em>, an <em>analogy</em>, a <em>statement of purpose</em>, and so on. Such a strategy may provide the lead at the drafting stage. Once a start is made, the writing task is simplified ‘as the writers let go and disappear into the act of writing’ (D’Aoust, 1986, p. 7).</h4>
<h4>RESPONDING</h4>
<h4>Responding to student writing by the teacher (or by peers) has a central role to play in the successful implementation of process writing. Responding intervenes between drafting and revising. It is the teacher’s <em>quick initial reaction </em>to students’ drafts. The response can be oral or in writing after the students have produced the first draft and just before they proceed to revise. The failure of many writing programs in schools today may be ascribed to the fact that responding is done in the final stage when the teacher simultaneously <em>responds </em>and <em>evaluates</em>, and even <em>edits </em>students’ finished texts, thus giving students the impression that nothing more needs to be done.</h4>
<h4><em>Text-specific </em>responses in the form of helpful suggestions and questions rather than ‘rubber-stamped’ comments (such as ‘organization is OK’, ‘ideas are too vague’ etc.) by the teacher will help students rediscover meanings and facilitate the revision of initial drafts. Such responses may be provided in the margin, between sentence lines or at the end of students’ texts. Peer responding can be effectively carried out by having students respond to each other’s texts in small groups or pairs, with the aid of the checklist in Table 1 (adapted from Reinking &amp; Hart, 1991).</h4>
<h4>REVISING</h4>
<h4>When students revise, they review their texts by the feedback given in the responding stage. They reexamine what was written to see how effectively they have communicated their meanings to the reader. Revising is not merely checking for language errors (i.e., editing). It is done to improve the global content and the organization of ideas so that the writer’s intent is made clearer to the reader.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>TABLE 1. PEER RESPONDING CHECKLIST</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>When responding to your peer’s draft, ask yourself these questions:</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>What is the greatest strength of this composition?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>What is its greatest weakness?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>What is the central idea of this composition?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Which are the ideas, which need more elaboration?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4> Where should more details or examples be added?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Why? What are some of the questions that the writer has not answered?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>At which point does this composition fail to hold the reader’s interest?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Why? Where is the organization confusing?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Where is the writing unclear or vague?</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4>To ensure that rewriting does not mean recopying, Beck (1986, p. 149) suggests that the teacher collects and keeps the students’ drafts and asks them for rewrites. ‘When the students are forced to act without their original drafts, they become more familiar with their purposes and their unique messages.T he writers move more ably within their topics, and their writing develops tones of confidence and authority’.</h4>
<h4>Another activity for revising may have the students working in pairs to read aloud each other’s drafts before they revise. As students listen intently to their own writing, they are brought to a more conscious level of rethinking and reseeding what they have written. Meanings, which are vague, become more apparent when the writers actually hear their own texts read out to them. Revision often becomes more voluntary and motivating. An alternative to this would be to have individual students read their own texts into a tape recorder and take dictation of their own writing later. Students can replay the tape as often as necessary and activate the pause button at points where they need to make a productive revision of their texts.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>EDITING</h4>
<h4>At this stage, the teacher engages students in tidying up their texts as they prepare the final draft for evaluation. They edit their own or their peer’s work for grammar, spelling, punctuation, diction, sentence structure and accuracy of supportive textual material such as quotations, examples and the like. Formal editing is deferruntilill this phase so that its application does not disrupt the free flow of ideas during the drafting and revising stages.</h4>
<h4>A simple checklist might be issued to students to alert them to some of the common surface errors found in students’ writing. For instance:</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>Have you used your verbs in the correct tense?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Are the verb forms correct?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Have you checked for</h4>
subject-verb
<h4>agreement?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Have you used the correct prepositions?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Have you left out the articles where they are required?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Have you used all your pronouns correctly?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Is your choice of adjectives and adverbs appropriate?</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>Have you written in complete sentences?</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4>The students are, however, not always expected to know where and how to correct every error, but editing to the best of their ability should be done as a matter of course, before submitting their work for evaluation each time. Editing within process writing is meaningful because students can see the connection between such an exercise and their own writing in that correction is not done for its own sake but as part of the process of making communication as clear and unambiguous as possible to an audience.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>EVALUATING</h4>
<h4>Very often, teachers pleading lack of time have compressed responding, editing and evaluating all into one. This would, in effect, deprive students of that vital link between drafting and revision – that is, responding – which often makes a big difference to the kind of writing that will eventually be produced.</h4>
<h4>In evaluating student writing, the scoring may be analytical (i.e., based on specific aspects of writing ability) or holistic (i.e., based on a global interpretation of the effectiveness of that piece of writing). To be effective, the criteria for evaluation should be made known to students in advance. They should include overall interpretation of the task, sense of audience, relevance, development, and organization of ideas, format or layout, grammar and structure, spelling and punctuation, range and appropriateness of vocabulary, and clarity of communication. Depending on the purpose of evaluation, a numerical score or grade may be assigned.</h4>
<h4>Students may be encouraged to evaluate their own and each other’s texts once they have been properly taught how to do it. In this way, they are made to be more responsible for their own writing.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>POST-WRITING</h4>
<h4>Post-writing constitutes any classroom activity that the teacher and students can do with the completed pieces of writing. This includes publishing, sharing, reading aloud, transforming texts for stage performances, or merely displaying texts on notice boards. The post-writing stage is a platform for recognizing students’ work as important and worthwhile. It may be used as a motivation for writing as well as to hedge against students finding excuses for not writing. Students must be made to feel that they are writing for a very real purpose.</h4>
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<h4>IMPLEMENTING PROCESS WRITING</h4>
<h4>Here are some pointers which teachers may like to take note of when implementing process writing:</h4>
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<h4>TEACHER MODELLING</h4>
<h4>Teachers should model the writing process at every stage and teach specific writing strategies to students through meaningful classroom activities.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>RELATING PROCESS TO PRODUCT</h4>
<h4>A first draft looks quite unlike another draft that has gone through several revisions. It is vital that as students go through the various stages of writing, they understand what kind of product is expected at each stage. Thus students need to be guided to set and achieve specific writing goals at every stage.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>WORKING WITHIN INSTITUTIONAL CONSTRAINTS</h4>
<h4>It is possible to teach some process skills appropriate to a writing stage, be it planning, drafting, responding, revising or editing within a regular two-period composition lesson. The teaching of the same process skill could be repeated in subsequent composition lessons. Process skills can be systematically taught each time until the entire series of such skills is developed over a period.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>CATERING TO DIVERSE STUDENT NEEDS</h4>
<h4>The teacher should implement a flexible program to cater to different student needs. The teacher will need to know what the individual student knows and work from there. The teacher may also decide to have students enter into different writing groups as planners, drafters, responders, revisers or editors during a writing session. A student may be with the planners for one writing task, but move to be with the editors later for the same or another task, according to his or her need or developmental stage in writing.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>EXPLOITING THE USE OF COMPUTERS IN PROCESS WRITING</h4>
<h4>Many word-processing programs are user-friendly enough for students to handle. Their direct application to process writing, especially for the purposes of drafting, revising and editing, is rewarding for both the teacher and the students. The teacher can teach responding or editing skills via the computer hooked on to an overhead projector. The students can freely make any number of changes to their texts by deleting words or moving them around without having to retype large chunks of text all over again. Any work done can be saved on the computer for revision later.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4><em>Teaching Students to Self-Edit</em></h4>
<h4><em>Dana Ferris</em></h4>
<h4>INTRODUCTION</h4>
<h4>Over the past couple of decades, the approach process for teaching writing has largely improved both L1 and L2 composition pedagogy. However, though students may be much better at invention, organization, and revision than they were before, too many written products are still riddled with grammatical and lexical inaccuracies. No matter how interesting or original a student’s ideas are, an excess of the sentence- and discourse-level errors may distract and frustrate instructors and other readers. Because this may lead to harsh evaluation of the student’s overall writing abilities, ESL writing teachers, in addition to focusing on students’ ideas, need to help students develop and improve their editing skills.</h4>
<h4>In the modern process approach composition classroom, editing refers to finding and correcting grammatical, lexical, and mechanical errors before submitting (or “publishing”) a final written product. Some studies claim that a lack of grammatical accuracy in ESL student writing may impede students’ progress in the university at large (Janopolous, 1992; Santos, 1988; Vann, Lorenz, &amp; Meyer, 1991; Vann, Meyer, &amp; Lorenz, 1984). As a university-level ESL writing teacher, I know the high standard of accuracy in student writing that the academic discourse community demands. My students will not succeed outside of the sheltered world of the ESL class unless they can learn to reduce their errors. Because I will not always be there to help my students, it is important that they learn to edit their own work.</h4>
<h4>As shown by several ESL editing textbooks (Ascher, 1993; Fox, 1992; Lane &amp; Lange, 1993; Raimes, 1992a), and a teacher’s reference on responding to ESL writing (Bates, Lane, &amp; Lange, 1993), researchers and teachers of ESL writing have become more aware of the need to help students self-edit their writing (Lane &amp; Lange, 1993, p. xix). In response to this need, I have developed and used a semester-long editing process approach to help advanced ESL writing students become more self-sufficient as editors. The particulars of this approach follow.</h4>
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<h4>PHILOSOPHICAL ASSUMPTIONS</h4>
<h4>I based my editing process approach on the following principles:</h4>
<h4>r Students and teachers should focus on major patterns of error rather than r attempt to correct every single error (Bates, Lane, &amp; Lange, 1993).</h4>
<h4>Because not all students will make the same errors, it is necessary and r desirable to personalize editing instruction as much as possible.</h4>
<h4>The errors to focus on should be those that are most frequent, global (interfere with the comprehensibility of the text), and stigmatizing (would cause a negative evaluation from native speakers) (Bates, Lane, &amp; Lange, 1993; Hendrickson, 1980).</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>THE EDITING PROCESS</h4>
<h4>Bates, Lane, and Lange (1993) and Hendrickson (1980) advocate teaching students a discovery approach through which they will become independent self-editors. I teach my advanced ESL students through a three-stage discovery approach to become self-sufficient editors.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>STAGE 1: FOCUSING ON FORM</h4>
<h4>Although some teachers assume that all ESL students are obsessively concerned with grammar to the detriment of developing and presenting their ideas, I have found that many students have little interest in and pay limited attention to editing their work. They find editing tedious or unimportant, or they have become overly dependent on teachers or tutors to correct their work for them. A crucial step in teaching students to become good editors is to convince them of the necessity of doing so.</h4>
<h4>To raise awareness of the importance of editing, I use in-class activities in which the students look at sentences or short student essays that contain a variety of editing problems. Rather than simply finding and correcting errors, they discuss how these errors impede their understanding of the texts, as in the following three examples:</h4>
<ul>
 	<li>
<h4>My <em>parents </em>always gave me a lot of love.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>School is the place where I <em>learn </em>things such as reading and writing.</h4>
</li>
 	<li>
<h4>I like coffee; <em>on the other hand</em>, I also like tea.  The italicized portions of these three sentences contain common ESL writing errors:  Respectively, an omitted plural marker, a verb tense error, and a misused transitional phrase. However, none of the sentences immediately appears ungrammatical – <em>the parent </em>can be singular; the two verbs in Example 2 are both in the present tense and thus appear consistent, and <em>on the other hand, it</em> signals a clause expressing a different viewpoint from the one preceding it. But once the students look closely at the texts, they can see that the use of <em>parent </em>is confusing and non-idiomatic (if you really had only one parent, you would identify him or her as your father or mother), that they learned to read and write a long time ago in school, and that liking coffee is not the opposite of liking tea, as implied by the use of <em>on the other hand. </em>Even fairly minor errors can lead to problems in text processing and comprehension.</h4>
</li>
</ul>
<h4>Another strategy I use to convince the students of the necessity of developing editing skills is to give them a diagnostic essay assignment and then provide them with written feedback about their ideas. Also to provide detailed information about their editing problems, and an indication of what grade they would receive if still writing at this level at the end of the semester. Giving students an immediate sense of what their final grade could be is motivating but does not seem to be intimidating if it is made clear that these initial grades are for the students’ information only and will not be counted in their final course evaluation.</h4>
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<h4>STAGE 2: RECOGNIZING MAJOR ERROR TYPES</h4>
<h4>Research indicates that focusing on patterns of error, rather than on individual errors, is most effective for both teachers and students, so at this stage, I train students to recognize various types of errors. The categories may vary depending on the students’ needs, but they should be selected from error types, which are frequent, global, and stigmatizing. I sensitize students to these error patterns by going over the targeted categories, letting them practice identifying them in sample student essays, and then looking for these errors in peer-editing exercises (see Activities 1 and 2). It seems to be true that it is easier to find mistakes in others’ work than in one’s own. Exercises in recognizing error patterns of other writers’ work help students become more aware of similar problems in their own writing. They also help lead students away from the frustrating and even counterproductive notion that they can or should attempt to correct every single error in a given essay draft.</h4>
<h4>During this stage of the editing process, I may also give a brief, focused instruction on major patterns of error if there are particular errors to which most students are prone. For instance, students may be confused about when to use the simple past tense and when to use the present perfect. In-class instruction should deal directly with this difficulty, rather than attempting to give students a complete overview of the English verb tense system or even of the various uses of the present perfect.</h4>
<h4></h4>
<h4>STAGE 3: SELF-EDITING PRACTICE</h4>
<h4>In the final phase, I require students to find and correct errors in their own and other students’ essay drafts. Also, throughout the semester, students keep a log of their error frequencies in the different categories so they can observe their progress. As the semester progresses and the students get more and more editing practice, I gradually decrease the amount of editing feedback I provide and turn the editing task over first to peer editors and then to the writers themselves.</h4>
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